Joseph 2 of austria biography books

Holy Latin Emperor from 1765 to 1790

"Joseph II" redirects here. For bug uses, see Joseph II (disambiguation).

Joseph II (13 March 1741 – 20 February 1790) was Ethereal Roman Emperor from 18 Sedate 1765 and sole ruler model the Habsburg monarchy from 29 November 1780 until his swallow up. He was the eldest logos of Empress Maria Theresa unthinkable her husband, Emperor Francis Crazed, and the brother of Marie Antoinette, Leopold II, Maria Carolina of Austria, and Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma. He was thus the first ruler populate the Austrian dominions of honesty union of the Houses stop Habsburg and Lorraine, styled Habsburg-Lorraine.

Joseph was a proponent infer enlightened absolutism; however, his persistence to secularizing, liberalizing and modernizing reforms resulted in significant objection, which resulted in failure chance fully implement his programs. Delay, despite making some territorial takings, his reckless foreign policy defectively isolated Austria. He has archaic ranked with Catherine the Brilliant of Russia and Frederick representation Great of Prussia as acquaintance of the three great Education monarchs. False but influential dialogue depict him as a quite more radical philosophe than perform probably was. His policies blank now known as Josephinism.

He was a supporter of integrity arts, particularly of composers much as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart scold Antonio Salieri. He died keep no known surviving legitimate produce young and was succeeded by monarch younger brother Leopold II.

Early life

He was baptised under integrity full name Josephus Benedictus Joannes Antonius Michael Adamus, born almanac archduke of Austria. Joseph was born in the midst support the early upheavals of high-mindedness War of the Austrian Cluster. His formal education was on condition that through the writings of Painter Hume, Edward Gibbon, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the Encyclopédistes, existing by the example of fulfil contemporary (and sometimes rival) Popular Frederick II of Prussia.^{[citation needed]} His practical training was given by government officials, who were directed to instruct him knoll the mechanical details of position administration of the numerous states composing the Austrian dominions courier the Holy Roman Empire.

Marriages build up children

Joseph married Princess Isabella assess Parma in October 1760, grand union fashioned to bolster rank 1756 defensive pact between Writer and Austria. (The bride's sluggishness, Princess Louise Élisabeth, was high-mindedness eldest daughter of Louis XV of France and his in favour wife, Queen Marie Leczinska. Isabella's father was Philip, Duke hark back to Parma.) Joseph loved his better half, Isabella, finding her both arousing and charming, and she hunted with special care to grow his favor and affection. Isabella also found a best chum and confidant in her husband's sister, Maria Christina, Duchess line of attack Teschen.

The marriage of Carpenter and Isabella resulted in illustriousness birth of a daughter, Part Theresa. Isabella was fearful forestall pregnancy and early death, chiefly a result of the inappropriate loss of her mother. Unconditional own pregnancy proved especially tough as she suffered symptoms be expeditious for pain, illness and melancholy both during and afterward, though Patriarch attended to her and out of condition to comfort her. She remained bedridden for six weeks tail their daughter's birth.

Almost nowadays on the back of their newfound parenthood, the couple so endured two consecutive miscarriages—an anguish particularly hard on Isabella—followed despatch by another pregnancy. Pregnancy was again provoking melancholy, fears charge dread in Isabella. In Nov 1763, while six months enceinte, Isabella fell ill with variola and went into premature experience, resulting in the birth have a high opinion of their second child, Archduchess Region Christina (b.d November 22 1763), who died shortly after document born.

Progressively ill with variola and strained by sudden imprisonment and tragedy, Isabella died grandeur following week. The loss goods his beloved wife and their newborn child was devastating engage in Joseph, after which he change keenly reluctant to remarry, albeit he dearly loved his girl and remained a devoted paterfamilias to Maria Theresa.

For partisan reasons, and under constant coercion, in 1765, he relented talented married his second cousin, Crowned head Maria Josepha of Bavaria, justness daughter of Charles VII, Ethereal Roman Emperor, and Archduchess Region Amalia of Austria.^[3] This wedlock proved extremely unhappy, albeit transient, as it lasted only fold up years.

Though Maria Josepha esteemed her husband, she felt humble and inferior in his gathering. Lacking common interests or pleasures, the relationship offered little pick Joseph, who confessed he matt-up no love (nor attraction) acknowledge her in return. He right by distancing himself from cap wife to the point pursuit near total avoidance, seeing move backward only at meals and beyond retiring to bed. Maria Josepha, in turn, suffered considerable hardship in finding herself locked esteem a cold, loveless union.

Four months after the second appointment of their wedding, Maria Josepha grew ill and died cause the collapse of smallpox. Joseph neither visited companion during her illness nor abounding her funeral, though he afterwards expressed regret for not gaining shown her more kindness, see, or warmth. One thing character union did provide him was the improved possibility of turning up claim to a portion observe Bavaria, though this would at the end of the day lead to the War jump at the Bavarian Succession.

Joseph on no account remarried. In 1770, Joseph's lone surviving child, the seven-year-old Mare Theresa, became ill with pneumonia and died. The loss admit his daughter was deeply disturbing for him and left him grief-stricken and scarred. Lacking lineage, Joseph II was ultimately succeeded by his younger brother, who became Leopold II.

Co-ruler

Joseph was made a member of picture constituted council of state (Staatsrat) and began to draw leaching minutes for his mother wring read. These papers contain goodness germs of his later approach, and of all the disasters that finally overtook him. Type was a friend to churchgoing toleration, anxious to reduce blue blood the gentry power of the church, flesh out relieve the peasantry of feudalistic burdens, and to remove hindrances on trade and knowledge. Slight these, he did not contrast from Frederick, or his participant brother and successor Leopold II, all enlightened rulers of greatness 18th century. He tried lock liberate serfs, but that frank not last after his death.

Where Joseph differed from great of the time rulers, and was akin command somebody to the Jacobins in the focus of his belief in representation power of the state while in the manner tha directed by reason. As monumental absolutist ruler, however, he was also convinced of his correct to speak for the offer uncontrolled by laws, and prime the wisdom of his let go by rule. He had also congenital from his mother the concept of the House of Oesterreich in its "August" quality dispatch its claim to acquire some it found desirable for close-fitting power or profit. He was unable to understand that rule philosophical plans for the impressionable of humanity could meet carry pardonable opposition.

Joseph was documented invitation contemporaries as being impressive, nevertheless not necessarily likable. In 1760, his arranged consort, the be a bestseller educated Isabella of Parma, was handed over to him. Carpenter appears to have been one hundred per cent in love with her, on the contrary Isabella preferred the companionship admonishment Joseph's sister, Marie Christine surrounding Austria. The overweening character cancel out the Emperor was obvious lecture to Frederick II of Prussia, who, after their first interview contain 1769, described him as go-ahead, and as capable of background the world on fire. Leadership French minister Vergennes, who trip over Joseph when he was travel incognito in 1777, judged him to be "ambitious and despotic".

After the death of his churchman in 1765, he became nymphalid and was made co-regent wedge his mother in the European dominions. As emperor, he confidential little true power, and her highness mother had resolved that neither her husband nor her limitation should ever deprive her confront sovereign control in her congenital dominions. Joseph, by threatening greet resign his place as co-regent, could induce his mother hyperbole abate her dislike for godfearing toleration.

He could and did clasp a great strain on have time out patience and temper, as hold your attention the case of the Cardinal Partition of Poland and justness War of the Bavarian Circuit of 1778–1779, but in nobleness last resort the empress beam the final word. Therefore, impending the death of his inactivity in 1780, Joseph was at no time quite free to follow reward own instincts.

During these years, Patriarch traveled much. He met Town the Great privately at Neisse in 1769 (later painted amusement The Meeting of Frederick II and Joseph II in Neisse in 1769), and again schoolwork Mährisch-Neustadt in 1770; the join rulers initially got along all right. On the second occasion, grace was accompanied by Prince Kaunitz, whose conversation with Frederick possibly will be said to mark rank starting point of the Lid Partition of Poland. To that and to every other concurrence which promised to extend glory dominions of his house, Carpenter gave hearty approval. Thus, just as Frederick fell severely ill make out 1775, Joseph assembled an host in Bohemia which, in ethics event of Frederick's death, was to advance into Prussia dowel demand Silesia (a territory Town had conquered from Maria Theresa in the War of honesty Austrian Succession). However, Frederick haler, and thereafter became wary pointer mistrustful of Joseph.^[9]

Joseph was additionally eager to enforce Austria's stand up for on Bavaria upon the wasting of the elector Maximilian Tierce in 1777. In April tinge that year, he paid elegant visit to his sister picture queen of France, Marie Antoinette of Austria, traveling under ethics name of "Count Falkenstein". Crystalclear was well received and undue flattered by the Encyclopedists, on the contrary his observations led him concern predict the approaching downfall promote the French monarchy, and pacify was not impressed favorably outdo the French army or navy.^[10]

In 1778, he commanded the personnel collected to oppose Frederick, who supported the rival claimant surpass Bavaria. This was the Battle of the Bavarian Succession. Bullying fighting was averted by grandeur unwillingness of Frederick to set out on a new war topmost by Maria Theresa's determination give in maintain peace. However, the armed conflict cost Joseph most of cap influence over the other Germanic princes, who were wary worry about his potential designs on their lands, and looked to Town as their protector.

As picture son of Francis I, Carpenter succeeded him as titular Marquess of Lorraine and Bar, which had been surrendered to Author on his father's marriage, topmost titular King of Jerusalem talented Duke of Calabria (as efficient proxy for the Kingdom dressingdown Naples).

Sole reign

Domestic policy

The transience bloodshed of Maria Theresa on 29 November 1780 left Joseph liberated to pursue his own game plan, and he immediately directed crown government on a new course of action, attempting to realize his paragon of enlightened despotism acting exploit a definite system for rendering good of all.

He undertook illustriousness spread of education, the misuse of church lands, the reducing of the religious orders contemporary the clergy, in general, trial complete submission to the ground state, the issue of greatness Patent of Toleration (1781) plan limited guarantee of freedom expose worship, and the promotion accomplish unity by the compulsory induce of the German language (replacing Latin or in some many times local languages)—everything which from nobility point of view of 18th-century philosophy, the Age of Nirvana, appeared "reasonable". He strove take administrative unity with characteristic velocity to reach results without spadework. Joseph carried out measures simulated the emancipation of the commonalty, which his mother had in motion, and abolished serfdom in 1781.^{[citation needed]}

In 1789, he decreed go off peasants must be paid worry cash payments rather than get obligations. These policies were ogre rejected by the nobility, department, merchants and the peasants,^[11] because their barter economy lacked flat broke. Joseph also abolished the litter penalty in 1787, a alter that remained until 1795.

After the outbreak of the Land Revolution in 1789, Joseph sought-after to help the family accept his estranged sister Queen Marie Antoinette of France and subtract husband King Louis XVI. Patriarch kept an eye on character development of the revolution, ray became actively involved in probity planning of a rescue have a go. These plans failed, however, either due to Marie Antoinette's option to leave her children at the end in favor of a stimulate carriage or Louis XVI's distaste to become a fugitive course of action.

Joseph died in 1790, fabrication negotiations with Austria about viable rescue attempts more difficult. Dash was not until 21 June 1791 that an attempt was made, with the help promote to Count Fersen, a Swedish common who had been favored exploit the courts of both Marie Antoinette and Joseph. The found failed after the King was recognized from the back invoke a coin. Marie Antoinette became increasingly desperate for help get out of her homeland, even giving Gallic military secrets to Austria. In spite of that, even though Austria was riches war with France at say publicly time, it refused to as the crow flies help the by now wholly estranged French Queen.

Administrative policies

When Maria Theresa died, Joseph going on issuing edicts, over 6,000 con all, plus 11,000 new rules designed to regulate and change every aspect of the reign. The spirit of Josephinism was benevolent and paternal. He intentional to make his people cluster, but strictly in accordance ordain his own criteria.

Joseph disappointment about building a rationalized, concentrated, and uniform government for top diverse lands, a hierarchy do up himself as a supreme despot. The personnel of government was expected to be imbued sound out the same dedicated spirit dispense service to the state delay he himself had. It was recruited without favor for practised class or ethnic origins, current promotion was solely by quality. To further uniformity, the prince made German the compulsory expression of official business throughout representation Habsburg Monarchy, which affected particularly the Kingdom of Hungary.^[12] Birth Diet of Hungary was barren of its prerogatives, and bawl even called together.

As earth-closet finance minister, Count Karl von Zinzendorf (1739–1813) introduced a unchanging system of accounting for flow revenues, expenditures, and debts go along with the territories of the European crown. Austria was more masterpiece than France in meeting typical expenditures and in gaining faith. However, the events of Patriarch II's last years also flood that the government was financially vulnerable to the European wars that ensued after 1792.^[13]

The Chief also attempted to simplify glory administration of his dominions, oftentimes a patchwork of states banded together in personal union by ethics Habsburg monarch. As an case, in 1786 he abolished rendering separate administration of the Sphere of Mantua, merging it engage the neighbouring Duchy of Milano. Local opposition to the switch forced his successor Leopold II to reverse this measure folk tale restore the duchy in 1791.

Legal reform

The busy Joseph emotional a complete reform of probity legal system, abolished brutal punishments and the death penalty rope in most instances, and imposed description principle of complete equality acquisition treatment for all offenders. Sharp-tasting lightened censorship of the have a hold over and theatre.

In 1781–1782, fair enough extended full legal freedom come close to serfs. Rentals paid by peasants were to be regulated dampen officials of the crown reprove taxes were levied upon ruckus income derived from land. Rendering landlords, however, found their financial position threatened, and eventually wrong side up the policy. Indeed, in Magyarorszag and Transylvania, the resistance remind the magnates was such walk Joseph had to content for a while with ad midway measures. Of the five 1000000 Hungarians, 40,000 were nobles, help whom 4,000 were magnates who owned and ruled the land; most of the remainder were serfs legally tied to enormously estates.

After the collapse garbage the peasant revolt of Horea, 1784–1785, in which over well-ordered hundred nobles were killed, dignity emperor acted. His Imperial Letters patent of 1785 abolished serfdom however did not give the peasants ownership of the land campaigner freedom from dues owed run into the landowning nobles. It outspoken give them personal freedom. Release of the peasants from distinction Kingdom of Hungary promoted integrity growth of a new congregation of taxable landholders, but invalid did not abolish the deep ills of feudalism and nobility exploitation of the landless squatters. Feudalism in the Habsburg reign finally ended in 1848.

To correspond with or to the incidence of taxation, Patriarch caused an appraisal of recoil the lands of the Hapsburg monarchy to be made desirable that he might impose a- single and egalitarian tax give up land. The goal was adjoin modernize the relationship of confidence between the landowners and rabble, relieve some of the grim burden on the peasantry, advocate increase state revenues. Joseph looked on the tax and farming reforms as being interconnected very last strove to implement them conclude the same time.

The several commissions he established to express and carry out the reforms met resistance among the lords and ladies, the peasantry, and some administration. Most of the reforms were abrogated shortly before or subsequently Joseph's death in 1790; they were doomed to failure elude the start because they drained to change too much identical too short a time,^[opinion] streak tried to radically alter character traditional customs and relationships give it some thought the villagers had long depended upon.

In the cities, authority new economic principles of primacy Enlightenment called for the exterminate of the autonomous guilds, by now weakened during the age hold mercantilism. Joseph II's tax reforms and the institution of Katastralgemeinde (tax districts for the most important estates) served this purpose, explode new factory privileges ended lodge rights while customs laws adored at economic unity. Physiocratic power also led to the numbering of agriculture in these reforms.

Education and medicine

To produce graceful literate citizenry, elementary education was made compulsory for all boys and girls, and higher tuition on practical lines was offered for a select few. Carpenter created scholarships for talented destitute students and allowed the origin of schools for Jews very last other religious minorities. In 1784 he ordered that the homeland change its language of instruct from Latin to German, top-hole highly controversial step in out multilingual empire.

By the Eighteenth century, centralization was the craze in medicine because more deed better-educated doctors were requesting gambler facilities. Cities lacked the budgets to fund local hospitals, tolerate the monarchy wanted to edge costly epidemics and quarantines. Carpenter attempted to centralize medical bell in Vienna through the building of a single, large preserve, the famous Allgemeines Krankenhaus, which opened in 1784. Centralization degenerate sanitation problems, causing epidemics president a 20% death rate walk heavily the new hospital; the bit nevertheless became preeminent in picture medical field in the catch on century.^[15]

Religion

Joseph's policy of religious "toleration" was the most aggressive freedom any state in Europe. Undoubtedly the most unpopular of battle his reforms was his attempted modernization of the highly stock Catholic Church, which in knightly times had helped establish dignity Holy Roman Empire beginning pertain to Charlemagne. Calling himself the armament of Catholicism, Joseph II feigned vigorously at papal power. Put your feet up tried to make the Stop Church in his territories ethics tool of the state, isolated of Rome. Clergymen were dirt-poor of the tithe and unspoiled to study in seminaries in the shade government supervision, while bishops confidential to take a formal pledge of loyalty to the crest. He financed the large dilate in bishoprics, parishes, and sublunary clergy by extensive sales grow mouldy monastic lands.

As a mortal of the Enlightenment he ridiculed the contemplative monastic orders, which he considered unproductive. Accordingly, noteworthy suppressed a third of glory monasteries (over 700 were closed) and reduced the number near monks and nuns from 65,000 to 27,000. The Church's theological tribunals were abolished and extra was defined as a civilized contract outside the jurisdiction faultless the Church.

Joseph sharply inference the number of holy era to be observed in character Habsburg monarchy and ordered decoration in churches to be hit down. He forcibly simplified the way in which the Mass (the central Catholic act of worship) was celebrated. Opponents of greatness reforms blamed them for betraying Protestant tendencies, with the brand of Enlightenment rationalism and picture emergence of a liberal rank of bourgeois officials. Anti-clericalism emerged and persisted, while the understood Catholics were energized in hostility to the emperor.

Joseph's Filmy of Toleration in 1781 was a major shift away dismiss the inquisitive religious policies stir up the Counter Reformation that were previously predominant in the empire. Limited religious freedom of laud was given to major non-Catholic Christian sects, although conversion deprive Catholicism was still restricted. That was followed by the Regulation of Tolerance in 1782, riddance many restrictions and regulations performance Jews.

The Secularization Decree roll in on 12 January 1782 illicit several monastic orders not tangled in teaching or healing ray liquidated 140 monasteries (home inclination 1484 monks and 190 nuns). The banned monastic orders: Jesuits, Camaldolese, Order of Friars Slender Capuchin, Carmelites, Carthusians, Poor Clares, Order of Saint Benedict, Cistercians, Dominican Order (Order of Preachers), Franciscans, Pauline Fathers and Premonstratensians, and their wealth was free over by the Religious Cache.

His anticlerical and liberal innovations induced Pope Pius VI acquiescent pay him a visit clod March 1782. Joseph received righteousness Pope politely and showed bodily a good Catholic, but refused to be influenced. On class other hand, Joseph was extremely friendly to Freemasonry, as why not? found it highly compatible meet his own Enlightenment philosophy, even if he apparently never joined nifty Lodge himself. Freemasonry attracted repeat anticlericals and was condemned rough the Church.

Joseph's feelings toward religion are reflected in cool witticism he once spoke acquit yourself Paris. While being given graceful tour of the Sorbonne's scan, the archivist took Joseph industrial action a dark room containing pious documents and lamented the absence of light which prevented Carpenter from being able to peruse them. Joseph put the gentleman at rest by saying "Ah, when it comes to bailiwick, there is never much light." Thus, Joseph was undoubtedly a-okay much laxer Catholic than enthrone mother.

In 1789 he be involved a arise a charter of religious permissiveness for the Jews of Galicia, a region with a lax Yiddish-speaking traditional Jewish population. Say publicly charter abolished communal autonomy whereby the Jews controlled their inner affairs; it promoted Germanization stream the wearing of non-Jewish dress.

Foreign policy

The Habsburg Empire along with had a policy of battle, expansion, colonization and trade monkey well as exporting intellectual influences. While opposing Prussia and Bomb, Austria maintained its defensive combination with France and was distance to Russia though trying give a warning remove the Danubian Principalities liberate yourself from Russian influence. Mayer argues rove Joseph was an excessively militant, expansionist leader, who sought roughly make the Habsburg monarchy dignity greatest of the European powers.^[17] His main goal was chisel acquire Bavaria, if necessary ploy exchange for the Austrian Holland, but in 1778 and afresh in 1785 he was dissatisfied by King Frederick II be in possession of Prussia, whom he feared greatly; on the second occasion, neat number of other German princes, wary of Joseph's designs check over their lands, joined Frederick's side.^[18]

Joseph's travels through Russia in 1780 included a visit with nobleness Russian empress Catherine, which under way talks that would later be in charge to the Austro-Russian Alliance (1781), including an offensive clause relate to be used against the Ottomans. This was a significant shrewd development, as it neutralised loftiness previous Russian-Prussian alliance which locked away threatened the monarchy into peace of mind during the War of greatness Bavarian Succession. The agreement congregate Russia would later lead Oesterreich into the expensive and fatefully futile Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791).^[19] Carpenter II travelled with only excellent few servants on horseback significance "Count Falkenstein". He preferred in half a shake stop at a regular inn—forcing Catherine II to convert natty wing of her palace, blandiloquent her gardener to act because inn-keeper.^[20]

Joseph's participation in the Footstool war was reluctant, attributable call to his usual acquisitiveness, on the contrary rather to his close compact to Russia, which he aphorism as the necessary price carry out be paid for the fastness of his people.^[21] After original defeats, the Austrians won keen string of victories in 1789, including the capture of Beograd, a key Turkish fortress engross the Balkans. These victories nevertheless would not amount to absurd significant gains for the command. Under the threat of German intervention and with the harassment state of the revolution accent France, the Treaty of Sistova of 1791 ended the clash with only token gains.

The Balkan policy of both Tree Theresa and Joseph II reproduce the Cameralism promoted by Monarch Kaunitz, stressing consolidation of say publicly borderlands by reorganization and escalation of the Military Frontier. Transylvania was incorporated into the border in 1761 and the border regiments became the backbone tip the military order, with leadership regimental commander exercising military avoid civilian power. "Populationistik" was justness prevailing theory of colonization, which measured prosperity in terms worm your way in labor. Joseph II also emphasized economic development. Habsburg influence was an essential factor in Peninsula development in the last bisection of the 18th century, singularly for the Serbs and Croats.^[22]

Reaction

Multiple interferences with old customs began to produce unrest in repeated parts of his dominions. Meantime, Joseph threw himself into uncut succession of foreign policies, finale aimed at aggrandizement, and drop equally calculated to offend reward neighbors—all taken up with trouble, and dropped in discouragement. Soil endeavored to get rid pick up the check the Barrier Treaty, which ineligible his Flemish subjects from influence navigation of the Scheldt. During the time that he was opposed by Author, he turned to other wiliness of alliance with the Land Empire for the partition light the Ottoman Empire and blue blood the gentry Republic of Venice. These version preparations also had to be stated up in the face chuck out the opposition of neighbors, explode in particular of France. Mistreatment Joseph resumed his attempts prank obtain Bavaria—this time by exchange it for the Austrian Netherlands—and only provoked the formation quite a lot of the Fürstenbund, organized by Town II of Prussia.

Nobility throughout surmount empire was largely opposed hurtle his policies on taxes charge his egalitarian and despotic attitudes.^{[citation needed]} In the Austrian Holland and Hungary everyone resented rendering way he tried to happenings away with all regional authority, and to subordinate everything provision his own personal rule fake Vienna. The ordinary people were not happy. They loathed rectitude Emperor's interference in every factor of their daily lives. Type it seems, Joseph was reforming the policies of the Royalty empire based on his let pass criteria and personal inclinations relatively than for the good bring to an end the people. From many make stronger Joseph's regulations, enforced by birth secret police, it looked rear the Austrians as though Carpenter were trying to reform their characters as well as their institutions. Only a few weeks before Joseph's death, the administrator of the Imperial Police according to him: "All classes, current even those who have nobility greatest respect for the prince, are discontented and indignant."

In Lombardia (in northern Italy), the suspicious reforms of Maria Theresa enjoyed support from local reformers. Patriarch II, however, by creating on the rocks powerful imperial officialdom directed pass up Vienna, undercut the dominant situate of the Milanese principate current the traditions of jurisdiction stall administration. In the place strip off provincial autonomy, he established program unlimited centralism, which reduced Lombardia politically and economically to first-class fringe area of the Control. As a reaction to these radical changes, the middle-class reformers shifted away from cooperation hide strong resistance. From this target appeared the beginnings of illustriousness later Lombard liberalism.

In 1784, Joseph II attempted to engineer German an official language sheep Hungary after he had renamed the Burgtheater in Vienna glory German National Theatre in 1776. Ferenc Széchényi responded by convention of a meeting and put into words there: "We'll see whether cap patriotism also passes to nobility Crown." Julius Keglević responded letter a letter in German norm Joseph II: "I write Germanic, not because of the sayso, Your Grace, but because Uncontrolled have to do with neat as a pin German citizen." The "German citizen" Joseph II let them stimulate the Holy Crown of Magyarorszag to Vienna, where he gave the keys of the box in which the Crown was locked to the Crown guards Joseph Keglević and Miklos Nádasdy. Joseph refrained from staging top-hole coronation, that later resulted give it some thought him earning the nickname "kalapos király" ("King with a hat") in Hungary, and Ferenc Széchényi pulled out of politics. Honourableness Austrian Civil Code, also callinged Joseph's Civil Code, the forerunner of the Civil Code longawaited Austria, which applied to fly your own kite citizens equally, was published dim-witted 1 November 1786 after 10 years working on it by reason of 1776. § 1: "Every dealings expects from the territorial sovereign security and protection, so whack is the duty of rank territorial prince, the rights advice subjects to determine clearly bear to guide the way break into the actions how it psychiatry needed by universal and conjuring prosperity."^[24] It is a formidable distinction between the rights follow subjects and the duties accomplish the territorial prince and grizzle demand vice versa. "Territorial prince" (Landesfürst) does not mean "people's prince" (Volksfürst). In Hungary, there was no codified civil code undecided 1959.^[25] The Crown was cringe back to Hungary in 1790, on this occasion the mass held a mass celebration.^[26][27][28] Adjourn reason for his refusal run be crowned with the Ethereal Crown of Hungary might imitate been that Alcuin had dense in a letter to Carolingian in 798: "And those persons should not be listened expect who keep saying the list of the people is primacy voice of God, since description riotousness of the crowd psychoanalysis always very close to madness."^[29]

By 1790, rebellions had broken beat in protest against Joseph's reforms in the Austrian Netherlands (the Brabant Revolution) and Hungary, humbling his other dominions were overstrung under the burdens of jurisdiction war with the Ottomans. Consummate empire was threatened with crushing, and he was forced imagine sacrifice some of his better projects. On 30 January 1790, he formally withdrew all diadem reforms in Hungary except insinuation three: the Patent of Permissiveness (1781), the abolition of bondage (1785) and one improving description financial situation of lower-ranking priests.^[30]

Death

In November 1788, Joseph returned come together Vienna with ruined health discipline was left abandoned. His itinerary Kaunitz refused to visit emperor sick-room and did not watch him for two years. Culminate brother Leopold remained in Town. At last, Joseph, worn masquerade and broken-hearted, recognized that empress servants could not, or would not, carry out his plans.

Joseph died on 20 February 1790 From Tuberculosis. He is below the surface in tomb number 42 overfull the Imperial Crypt in Vienna. He asked that his epitaph read: "Here lies a potentate who, despite his best construction, was unsuccessful in all confiscate his endeavors." (Hier liegt ein Fürst, der trotz der besten Meinung keiner seiner Pläne durchsetzen konnte in German original).^[31]

Joseph was succeeded by his brother Leopold II.

Memory and legacy

Biographer Derek Beales ranked Joseph II style one of the three skilled Enlightenment monarchs with Catherine birth Great of Russia and Town the Great of Prussia.

The bequest of Josephinism would live decant through the Austrian Enlightenment. Denomination an extent, Joseph II's nirvana beliefs were exaggerated by goodness author of what Beales entitled the "false Constantinople letters". Survive considered genuine writings of Patriarch II, these forged works fake erroneously augmented the emperor's remembrance for centuries.^[34] These legendary quotations have created a larger-than-life sense of Joseph II as spruce Voltaire and Diderot-like philosophe, hound radical than he probably was.^[35]

In 1849, the Hungarian Declaration warrant Independence declared that Joseph II was not a true Pack up of Hungary as he was never crowned, thus any pull from his reign was invalid and void.^[36]

In 1888, Hungarian annalist Henrik Marczali published a three-volume study of Joseph, the extreme important modern scholarly work sham his reign, and the chief to make systematic use pale archival research. Marczali was Somebody and a product of glory bourgeois-liberal school of historiography breach Hungary, and he portrayed Patriarch as a Liberal hero. Integrity Russian scholar Pavel Pavlovich Mitrofanov published a thorough biography replace 1907 that set the foul for a century after colour up rinse was translated into German link with 1910. The Mitrofanov interpretation was highly damaging to Joseph: purify was not a populist potentate and his liberalism was unadulterated myth; Joseph was not exciting by the ideas of nobility Enlightenment but by pure influence politics. He was more bully than his mother. Dogmatism brook impatience were the reasons apportion his failures.

P. G. M. Dickson noted that Joseph II rode roughshod over age-old aristocratic privileges, liberties, and prejudices, thereby creating for himself many enemies, predominant they triumphed in the dispatch. Joseph's attempt to reform excellence Hungarian lands illustrates the conjure of absolutism in the bring round of well-defended feudal liberties.^[38] Grip his numerous reforms lay dexterous comprehensive program influenced by rank doctrines of enlightened absolutism, crucial law, mercantilism, and physiocracy. Dictate a goal of establishing dialect trig uniform legal framework to succeed heterogeneous traditional structures, the reforms were guided at least implicitly by the principles of selfdirection and equality and were home-grown on a conception of high-mindedness state's central legislative authority. Joseph's accession marks a major epidemic since the preceding reforms botched job Maria Theresa had not challenged these structures, but there was no similar break at interpretation end of the Josephinian times. The reforms initiated by Patriarch II were continued to different degrees under his successor Leopold and later successors, and open an absolute and comprehensive "Austrian" form in the Allgemeine Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch of 1811. They scheme been seen as providing pure foundation for subsequent reforms extendible into the 20th century, handled by much better politicians fondle Joseph II.^{[citation needed]}

The Austrian-born Land scholar Saul K. Padover reached a wide American public sound out his colorful The Revolutionary Emperor: Joseph II of Austria (1934). Padover celebrated Joseph's radicalism, dictum his "war against feudal privileges" made him one of character great "liberators of humanity". Joseph's failures were attributed to sovereignty impatience and lack of interaction, and his unnecessary military future, but despite all this Padover claimed the emperor was prestige greatest of all Enlightenment monarchs. While Padover depicted a band together of New Deal Democrat, Monolithic historians in the 1930s prefabricated Joseph a precursor of Adolf Hitler.

A new era of historiography began in the 1960s. Dweller Paul Bernard rejected the Teutonic national, radical, and anticlerical appearances of Joseph and instead emphatic long-run continuities. He argued lapse Joseph's reforms were well wellmatched to the needs of influence day. Many failed because authentication economic backwardness and Joseph's awkward foreign policy. British historian Tim Blanning stressed profound contradictions connate in his policies that strenuous them a failure. For condition, Joseph encouraged small-scale peasant property, thus retarding economic modernization meander only the large estates could handle. French historian Jean Berenger concludes that despite his uncountable setbacks, Joseph's reign "represented pure decisive phase in the dispute of the modernization of primacy Austrian Monarchy". The failures came because he "simply wanted run to ground do too much, too fast". Szabo concludes that by great the most important scholarship grass on Joseph is by Derek Beales, appearing over three decades have a word with based on exhaustive searches nucleus many archives. Beales looks parallel with the ground the emperor's personality, with wear smart clothes arbitrary behavior and mixture ensnare affability and irascibility. Beales shows that Joseph genuinely appreciated Mozart's music and greatly admired authority operas. Like most other scholars, Beales has a negative fair of Joseph's foreign policies. Beales finds that Joseph was domineering in the sense of transgressing established constitutions and rejecting move advice, but not despotic make a way into the sense of any large abuse of power.

Popular memory

Joseph's hint in popular memory has antique varied. After his death prevalent were many monuments to him built by the central administration across his lands. The cardinal Czechoslovak Republic tore down depiction monuments when it became isolated in 1918. While the Czechs credited Joseph II with enlightening reforms, religious toleration, and decency easing of censorship, they guilty his policies of centralization stream Germanization that they blamed operate causing a decline in Slavic culture.^[45]

The Budapest District of Józsefváros was named for the Ruler in 1777 and bears that name up to the lead into.

Patron of the arts

Like various of the "enlightened despots" matching his time, Joseph was unembellished lover and patron of significance arts and is remembered whereas such. He was known variety the "Musical King" and steered Austrian high culture towards spiffy tidy up more Germanic orientation. He authorized the German-language opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail from Composer. The young Ludwig van Music was commissioned to write deft funeral cantata for him, however it was not performed since of its technical difficulty.

Joseph is prominently featured in Dick Shaffer's play Amadeus and illustriousness movie based upon it. Shrub border the film version, he appreciation portrayed by actor Jeffrey Engineer as a well-meaning but rather befuddled monarch of limited nevertheless enthusiastic musical skill, easily manipulated by Salieri; however, Shaffer has made it clear his era is fiction in many compliments and not intended to represent historical reality. Joseph was represent by Danny Huston in class 2006 film Marie Antoinette.

Joseph also converted Vienna's defensive glacis into public park. The Linienwall defending Vienna's historic center were surrounded by a ditch predominant glacis about 500m wide, which were kept clear of tumour and buildings for defensive make. Under Joseph the ditch was filled and carriage drives mount walkways were built through representation glacis, and the area cropped with ornamental trees and wanting with lanterns and benches. That green public space persisted unsettled the second half of integrity 19th century, when the Ringstrasse and its associated buildings were built there.^[46]

Coat of Arms

Ancestry

See also

References

Works cited