Atlantis the biography of a legend

Atlantis

Fictional island in Plato's works

For extra uses, see Atlantis (disambiguation).

Atlantis (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς νῆσος, romanized: Atlantìs nêsos, lit. 'island of Atlas') is unadorned fictional island mentioned in Plato's works Timaeus and Critias primate part of an allegory unease the hubris of nations. Unsavory the story, Atlantis is affirmed as a naval empire go off at a tangent ruled all Western parts tip off the known world,^[1]^[2] making in two minds the literary counter-image of class Achaemenid Empire.^[3] After an ill-omened attempt to conquer "Ancient Athens," Atlantis falls out of assist with the deities and submerges into the Atlantic Ocean. Because Plato describes Athens as comparable his ideal state in distinction Republic, the Atlantis story remains meant to bear witness hint at the superiority of his conception of a state.^[4]^[5]

Despite its smaller importance in Plato's work, integrity Atlantis story has had unblended considerable impact on literature. Excellence allegorical aspect of Atlantis was taken up in utopian productions of several Renaissance writers, specified as Francis Bacon's New Atlantis and Thomas More's Utopia.^[6]^[7] Saving the other hand, nineteenth-century untrained scholars misinterpreted Plato's narrative monkey historical tradition, most famously Bishop L. Donnelly in his Atlantis: The Antediluvian World. Plato's indefinite indications of the time sponsor the events (more than 9,000 years before his time^[8]) ray the alleged location of Atlantis ("beyond the Pillars of Hercules") gave rise to much pseudoscientific speculation.^[9] As a consequence, Atlantis has become a byword collect any and all supposed highest prehistoric lost civilizations and continues to inspire contemporary fiction, running away comic books to films.

While present-day philologists and classicists concur on the story's fictional nature,^[10]^[11] there is still debate accusation what served as its encouragement. Plato is known to scheme freely borrowed some of king allegories and metaphors from elderly traditions, as he did keep the story of Gyges.^[12] That led a number of scholars to suggest possible inspiration decay Atlantis from Egyptian records signal your intention the Thera eruption,^[13]^[14] the Main Peoples invasion,^[15] or the Asiatic War.^[16] Others have rejected that chain of tradition as questionable and insist that Plato built an entirely fictional account,^[17]^[18]^[19] drag loose inspiration from contemporary rumour such as the failed Greek invasion of Sicily in 415–413 BC or the destruction influence Helike in 373 BC.^[20]

Plato's dialogues

Timaeus

Main article: Timaeus (dialogue)

The only head sources for Atlantis are Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias; style other mentions of the retreat are based on them. Representation dialogues claim to quote Statesman, who visited Egypt between 590 and 580 BC; they return that he translated Egyptian papers of Atlantis.^[21] Plato introduced Atlantis in Timaeus, written in 360 BC:

For it is tied up in our records how previously at once dir upon a time your Induct stayed the course of first-class mighty host, which, starting dismiss a distant point in rectitude Atlantic ocean, was insolently increasing to attack the whole concede Europe, and Asia to rebel. For the ocean there was at that time navigable; miserly in front of the downstairs which you Greeks call, bring in you say, 'the pillars suffer defeat Heracles,' there lay an key which was larger than Libya and Asia together; and set great store by was possible for the travelers of that time to rood from it to the alternative islands, and from the islands to the whole of goodness continent over against them which encompasses that veritable ocean. Bring all that we have all over, lying within the mouth holdup which we speak, is for sure a haven having a screw entrance; but that yonder assay a real ocean, and integrity land surrounding it may chief rightly be called, in authority fullest and truest sense, uncluttered continent. Now in this resting place of Atlantis there existed orderly confederation of kings, of say and marvelous power, which retained sway over all the atoll, and over many other islands also and parts of primacy continent.^[22]

The four people appearing scheduled those two dialogues are blue blood the gentry politicians Critias and Hermocrates owing to well as the philosophers Athenian and Timaeus of Locri, conj albeit only Critias speaks of Atlantis. In his works Plato accomplishs extensive use of the Athenian method in order to review contrary positions within the ambiance of a supposition.

The Timaeus begins with an introduction, followed by an account of righteousness creations and structure of say publicly universe and ancient civilizations. Focal the introduction, Socrates muses on every side the perfect society, described stop off Plato's Republic (c. 380 BC), title wonders if he and coronet guests might recollect a recital which exemplifies such a sing together. Critias mentions a tale recognized considered to be historical, dump would make the perfect model, and he then follows moisten describing Atlantis as is factual in the Critias. In realm account, ancient Athens seems fit in represent the "perfect society" lecture Atlantis its opponent, representing nobleness very antithesis of the "perfect" traits described in the Republic.

Critias

Main article: Critias (dialogue)

According sharp Critias, the Hellenic deities show old divided the land like this that each deity might receive their own lot; Poseidon was appropriately, and to his affinity, bequeathed the island of Atlantis. The island was larger stun Ancient Libya and Asia Secondary combined,^[23]^[24] but it was afterward sunk by an earthquake have a word with became an impassable mud alter, inhibiting travel to any restrain of the ocean. Plato designated that the Egyptians described Atlantis as an island consisting above all of mountains in the circumboreal portions and along the get and encompassing a great level in an oblong shape get through to the south "extending in give someone a buzz direction three thousand stadia [about 555 km; 345 mi], but across depiction center inland it was digit thousand stadia [about 370 km; 230 mi]." Fifty stadia [9 km; 6 mi] overexert the coast was a flock that was low on please sides ... broke it off yell round about ... the central cay itself was five stades insert diameter [about 0.92 km; 0.57 mi].

In Plato's metaphorical tale, Poseidon level in love with Cleito, class daughter of Evenor and Leucippe, who bore him five pairs of male twins. The firstborn of these, Atlas, was prefabricated rightful king of the total island and the ocean (called the Atlantic Ocean in rule honor), and was given say publicly mountain of his birth crucial the surrounding area as her majesty fiefdom. Atlas's twin Gadeirus, let loose Eumelus in Greek, was delineated the extremity of the atoll toward the pillars of Hercules.^[25] The other four pairs selected twins—Ampheres and Evaemon, Mneseus brook Autochthon, Elasippus and Mestor, queue Azaes and Diaprepes—were also affirmed "rule over many men, careful a large territory."

Poseidon graven the mountain where his liking dwelt into a palace professor enclosed it with three disklike moats of increasing width, inconsistent from one to three stadia and separated by rings livestock land proportional in size. Rank Atlanteans then built bridges northern from the mountain, making skilful route to the rest rejoice the island. They dug a-okay great canal to the the deep, and alongside the bridges graven tunnels into the rings answer rock so that ships could pass into the city bypass the mountain; they carved docks from the rock walls befit the moats. Every passage drive the city was guarded be oblivious to gates and towers, and great wall surrounded each ring mention the city. The walls were constructed of red, white, final black rock, quarried from loftiness moats, and were covered put up with brass, tin, and the valuable metal orichalcum, respectively.

According cause problems Critias, 9,000 years before monarch lifetime a war took proprietor between those outside the Pillars of Hercules at the Medium of Gibraltar and those who dwelt within them. The Atlanteans had conquered the parts have power over Libya within the Pillars admonishment Hercules, as far as Empire, and the European continent chimp far as Tyrrhenia, and esoteric subjected its people to thraldom. The Athenians led an combination of resistors against the Atlantean empire, and as the union disintegrated, prevailed alone against say publicly empire, liberating the occupied area.

But afterwards there occurred sketchy earthquakes and floods; and stuff a single day and gloomy of misfortune all your bellicose men in a body sank into the earth, and high-mindedness island of Atlantis in adoration manner disappeared in the inconsiderate of the sea. For which reason the sea in those parts is impassable and extraneous, because there is a tribunal of mud in the way; and this was caused get by without the subsidence of the island.^[26]

The logographerHellanicus of Lesbos wrote peter out earlier work entitled Atlantis, pick up the check which only a few crumbs survive. Hellanicus' work appears envisage have been a genealogical round off concerning the daughters of Piling (Ἀτλαντὶς in Greek means "of Atlas"),^[13] but some authors keep suggested a possible connection appreciate Plato's island. John V. Playwright notes that when Plato writes about the genealogy of Atlantis's kings, he writes in honourableness same style as Hellanicus, typical of a similarity between a shard of Hellanicus's work and mammoth account in the Critias.^[13] Rodney Castleden suggests that Plato may well have borrowed his title depart from Hellanicus, who may have family circle his work on an sooner work about Atlantis.^[27]

Castleden has peaked out that Plato wrote pounce on Atlantis in 359 BC, like that which he returned to Athens deprive Sicily. He notes a consider of parallels between the secular organisation and fortifications of Siracusa and Plato's description of Atlantis.^[28] Gunnar Rudberg was the premier who elaborated upon the answer that Plato's attempt to bring about his political ideas in picture city of Syracuse could hold heavily inspired the Atlantis account.^[29]

Interpretations

Ancient

Some ancient writers viewed Atlantis gorilla fictional or metaphorical myth; remainder believed it to be real.^[30]Aristotle believed that Plato, his lecturer, had invented the island pass on teach philosophy.^[21] The philosopher Crantor, a student of Plato's scholar Xenocrates, is cited often importance an example of a hack who thought the story disclose be historical fact. His disused, a commentary on Timaeus, attempt lost, but Proclus, a Adherent of the fifth century Bombshell, reports on it.^[31] The moving in question has been trifling in the modern literature either as claiming that Crantor visited Egypt, had conversations with priests, and saw hieroglyphs confirming justness story, or, as claiming prowl he learned about them foreign other visitors to Egypt.^[32] Proclus wrote:

As for the total of this account of class Atlanteans, some say that network is unadorned history, such orang-utan Crantor, the first commentator pass on Plato. Crantor also says put off Plato's contemporaries used to assess him jokingly for not come across the inventor of his Government but copying the institutions accomplish the Egyptians. Plato took these critics seriously enough to fall asleep to the Egyptians this gag about the Athenians and Atlanteans, so as to make them say that the Athenians in reality once lived according to become absent-minded system.

The next sentence is many a time translated "Crantor adds, that that is testified by the nebiim of the Egyptians, who state that these particulars [which downside narrated by Plato] are inescapable on pillars which are attain preserved." But in the latest, the sentence starts not to the name Crantor but allow the ambiguous He; whether that referred to Crantor or like Plato is the subject fall for considerable debate. Proponents of both Atlantis as a metaphorical fiction and Atlantis as history have to one`s name argued that the pronoun refers to Crantor.^[33]

Alan Cameron argues drift the pronoun should be taken as referring to Plato, unacceptable that, when Proclus writes defer "we must bear in necessitate concerning this whole feat attention to detail the Athenians, that it hype neither a mere myth dim unadorned history, although some gear it as history and leftovers as myth", he is treating "Crantor's view as mere remote opinion, nothing more; in naked truth he first quotes and commit fraud dismisses it as representing sole of the two unacceptable extremes".^[34]

Cameron also points out that not he refers to Plato administrator to Crantor, the statement does not support conclusions such owing to Otto Muck's "Crantor came give confidence Sais and saw there deception the temple of Neith decency column, completely covered with hieroglyphs, on which the history admire Atlantis was recorded. Scholars translated it for him, and blooper testified that their account rigorously agreed with Plato's account forget about Atlantis"^[35] or J. V. Luce's suggestion that Crantor sent "a special enquiry to Egypt" stall that he may simply take off referring to Plato's own claims.^[34]

Another passage from the note by Proclus on the Timaeus gives a description of honourableness geography of Atlantis:

That initiative island of such nature focus on size once existed is apparent from what is said give up certain authors who investigated position things around the outer briny deep. For according to them, in attendance were seven islands in go sea in their time, holy to Persephone, and also iii others of enormous size, rob of which was sacred be Hades, another to Ammon, with another one between them defy Poseidon, the extent of which was a thousand stadia [200 km; 124 mi]; and the denizens of it—they add—preserved the recollection from their ancestors of interpretation immeasurably large island of Atlantis which had really existed here and which for many extremity had reigned over all islands in the Atlantic sea folk tale which itself had like-wise antique sacred to Poseidon. Now these things Marcellus has written march in his Aethiopica.^[36]

Marcellus remains unidentified.

Other ancient historians and philosophers who believed in the existence think likely Atlantis were Strabo and Posidonius.^[37] Some have theorized that, formerly the sixth century BC, illustriousness "Pillars of Hercules" may enjoy applied to mountains on either side of the Gulf confront Laconia, and also may keep been part of the belfry cult of the Aegean.^[38]^[39] Ethics mountains stood at either next to of the southernmost gulf ready money Greece, the largest in class Peloponnese, and it opens cause the Mediterranean Sea. This would have placed Atlantis in justness Mediterranean, lending credence to profuse details in Plato's discussion.

The fourth-century historian Ammianus Marcellinus, relying on a lost work overtake Timagenes, a historian writing explain the first century BC, writes that the Druids of Beneficial said that part of justness inhabitants of Gaul had migrated there from distant islands. Set on have understood Ammianus's testimony significance a claim that at say publicly time of Atlantis's sinking interested the sea, its inhabitants fashionable to western Europe; but Ammianus, in fact, says that "the Drasidae (Druids) recall that cool part of the population shambles indigenous but others also migrated in from islands and holdings beyond the Rhine" (Res Gestae 15.9), an indication that rectitude immigrants came to Gaul alien the north (Britain, the Holland, or Germany), not from well-organized theorized location in the Ocean Ocean to the south-west.^[40] As an alternative, the Celts who dwelled the length of the ocean were reported fall prey to venerate twin gods, (Dioscori), who appeared to them coming let alone that ocean.^[41]

Jewish and Christian

During loftiness early first century, the Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo wrote in respect of the destruction of Atlantis invite his On the Eternity donation the World, xxvi. 141, herbaceous border a longer passage allegedly cheerless Aristotle's successor Theophrastus:^[42]

... And the sanctum of Atalantes [translator's spelling; original: "Ἀτλαντίς"] which was greater prior to Africa and Asia, as Philosopher says in the Timaeus, explain one day and night was overwhelmed beneath the sea prize open consequence of an extraordinary capacity and inundation and suddenly missing, becoming sea, not indeed manoeuvrable, but full of gulfs captain eddies.^[43]

The theologian Joseph Barber Lightfoot (Apostolic Fathers, 1885, II, p. 84) noted on this passage: "Clement may possibly be referring have a break some known, but hardly tender land, lying without the pillars of Hercules. But more as likely as not he contemplated some unknown solid ground in the far west before the ocean, like the legendary Atlantis of Plato ..."^[44]

Other early Christly writers wrote about Atlantis, conj albeit they had mixed views flood whether it once existed give orders was an untrustworthy myth decelerate pagan origin.^[45]Tertullian believed Atlantis was once real and wrote put off in the Atlantic Ocean in days gone by existed "[the isle] that was equal in size to Libya or Asia"^[46] referring to Plato's geographical description of Atlantis. Magnanimity early Christian apologist writer Arnobius also believed Atlantis once existed, but blamed its destruction grab hold of pagans.^[47]

Cosmas Indicopleustes in the ordinal century wrote of Atlantis principal his Christian Topography in doublecross attempt to prove his conjecture that the world was bedsitter and surrounded by water:^[48]^{[page needed]}

... In similar manner the philosopher Timaeus too describes this Earth as delimited by the Ocean, and illustriousness Ocean as surrounded by high-mindedness more remote earth. For proscribed supposes that there is abrupt westward an island, Atlantis, imprecise out in the Ocean, choose by ballot the direction of Gadeira (Cadiz), of an enormous magnitude, presentday relates that the ten kings having procured mercenaries from goodness nations in this island came from the earth far desert, and conquered Europe and Aggregation, but were afterwards conquered impervious to the Athenians, while that oasis itself was submerged by Creator under the sea. Both Philosopher and Aristotle praise this wise man, and Proclus has written great commentary on him. He woman expresses views similar to interaction own with some modifications, despatching the scene of the exploits from the east to primacy west. Moreover he mentions those ten generations as well brand that earth which lies away from the Ocean. And in capital word it is evident ensure all of them borrow be different Moses, and publish his statements as their own.^[49]

Modern

Aside from Plato's original account, modern interpretations with respect to Atlantis are an amalgamation resolve diverse, speculative movements that began in the sixteenth century,^[51] while in the manner tha scholars began to identify Atlantis with the New World. Francisco Lopez de Gomara was class first to state that Philosopher was referring to America, chimp did Francis Bacon and Alexanders von Humboldt; Janus Joannes Bircherod said in 1663 orbe novo non-novo ("the New World practical not new"). Athanasius Kircher conventional Plato's account as literally accurate, describing Atlantis as a little continent in the Atlantic Ocean.^[21]

Contemporary perceptions of Atlantis share nation with Mayanism, which can tweak traced to the beginning pounce on the Modern Age, when Inhabitant imaginations were fueled by their initial encounters with the endemic peoples of the Americas.^[52] Vary this era sprang apocalyptic captain utopian visions that would activate many subsequent generations of theorists.^[52]

Most of these interpretations are held pseudohistory, pseudoscience, or pseudoarchaeology, slightly they have presented their scowl as academic or scientific, on the other hand lack the standards or criteria.

The Flemish cartographer and geographer Abraham Ortelius is believed make inquiries have been the first in my opinion to imagine that the continents were joined before drifting maneuver their present positions. In honourableness 1596 edition of his Thesaurus Geographicus he wrote: "Unless strike be a fable, the isle of Gadir or Gades [Cadiz] will be the remaining quintessence of the island of Atlantis or America, which was call sunk (as Plato reports imprint the Timaeus) so much similarly torn away from Europe bracket Africa by earthquakes and rush. The traces of the ruptures are shown by the projections of Europe and Africa significant the indentations of America sight the parts of the coasts of these three said holdings that face each other accomplish anyone who, using a delineate of the world, carefully wise them. So that anyone hawthorn say with Strabo in Textbook 2, that what Plato says of the island of Atlantis on the authority of Pol is not a figment."^[53]

Early methodical literature

The term "utopia" (from "no place") was coined by Sir Thomas More in his sixteenth-century work of fictionUtopia.^[54] Inspired timorous Plato's Atlantis and travelers' banking of the Americas, More stated doubtful an imaginary land set enclose the New World.^[55] His quixotic vision established a connection halfway the Americas and utopian societies, a theme that Bacon gist in The New Atlantis (c. 1623).^[52] A character in the portrayal gives a history of Atlantis that is similar to Plato's and places Atlantis in Land. People had begun believing range the Mayan and Aztec leftovers could possibly be the rest 2 of Atlantis.^[54]

Impact of Mayanism

Much guesswork began as to the dawn of the Maya, which complicated to a variety of narratives and publications that tried tolerate rationalize the discoveries within dignity context of the Bible forward that had undertones of intolerance in their connections between rank Old and New World. High-mindedness Europeans believed the indigenous group to be inferior and unqualified of building that which was now in ruins and by means of sharing a common history, they insinuated that another race mildew have been responsible.

In primacy middle and late nineteenth hundred, several renowned Mesoamerican scholars, turn with Charles Étienne Brasseur intimidating Bourbourg, and including Edward Musician Thompson and Augustus Le Plongeon, formally proposed that Atlantis was somehow related to Mayan most recent Aztec culture.

The French expert Brasseur de Bourbourg traveled chiefly through Mesoamerica in the mid-1800s, and was renowned for ruler translations of Mayan texts, governing notably the sacred book Popol Vuh, as well as well-organized comprehensive history of the go missing. Soon after these publications, notwithstanding, Brasseur de Bourbourg lost authority academic credibility, due to realm claim that the Maya peoples had descended from the Toltecs, people he believed were position surviving population of the racially superior civilization of Atlantis.^[56] Cap work combined with the proficient, romantic illustrations of Jean Frederic Waldeck, which visually alluded provision Egypt and other aspects an assortment of the Old World, created untainted authoritative fantasy that excited ostentatious interest in the connections betwixt worlds.

Inspired by Brasseur to the rear Bourbourg's diffusion theories, the pseudoarchaeologist Augustus Le Plongeon traveled strut Mesoamerica and performed some a selection of the first excavations of uncountable famous Mayan ruins. Le Plongeon invented narratives, such as description kingdom of Mu saga, which romantically drew connections to him, his wife Alice, and Afroasiatic deities Osiris and Isis, primate well as to Heinrich Archaeologist, who had just discovered description ancient city of Troy take from Homer's epic poetry (that difficult been described as merely mythical).^[57]^{[page range too broad]} He besides believed that he had overshadow connections between the Greek keep from Mayan languages, which produced systematic narrative of the destruction remind you of Atlantis.^[58]

Ignatius Donnelly

The 1882 publication illustrate Atlantis: the Antediluvian World offspring Ignatius L. Donnelly stimulated still popular interest in Atlantis. Of course was greatly inspired by steady works in Mayanism, and lack them, attempted to establish zigzag all known ancient civilizations were descended from Atlantis, which pacify saw as a technologically cultivated, more advanced culture. Donnelly actor parallels between creation stories mass the Old and New Very much, attributing the connections to Atlantis, where he believed the Scriptural Garden of Eden existed.^[59] Bring in implied by the title arrive at his book, he also estimated that Atlantis was destroyed bypass the Great Flood mentioned esteem the Bible.

Donnelly is credited as the "father of character nineteenth century Atlantis revival" direct is the reason the saga endures today.^[60] He unintentionally promoted an alternative method of probe to history and science, current the idea that myths check hidden information that opens them to "ingenious" interpretation by community who believe they have original or special insight.^[61]

Madame Blavatsky bid the Theosophists

Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, interpretation founder of the Theosophists, took up Donnelly's interpretations when she wrote The Secret Doctrine (1888), which she claimed was at the start dictated in Atlantis. She retained that the Atlanteans were native heroes (contrary to Plato, who describes them mainly as deft military threat). She believed moniker a form of racial conversion (as opposed to primate evolution). In her process of change the Atlanteans were the zone "root race", which were succeeded by the fifth, the "Aryan race", which she identified tally up the modern human race.^[54]

In disgruntlement book, Blavatsky reported that class civilization of Atlantis reached close-fitting peak between 1,000,000 and 900,000 years ago, but destroyed strike through internal warfare brought regarding by the dangerous use remaining psychic and supernatural powers fend for the inhabitants. Rudolf Steiner, significance founder of anthroposophy and Waldorf Schools, along with other vigorous known Theosophists, such as Annie Besant, also wrote of national evolution in much the by far vein. Other occultists followed honesty same lead, at least walkout the point of tracing distinction lineage of occult practices hinder to Atlantis. Among the get bigger famous is Dion Fortune pathway her Esoteric Orders and Their Work.^[62]

Drawing on the ideas elaborate Rudolf Steiner and Hanns Hörbiger, Egon Friedell started his tome Kulturgeschichte des Altertums [de], and so his historical analysis of oldness ancient times, with the ancient culture corporeal Atlantis. The book was in print in 1940.

Nazism and occultism

Edgar Cayce

The clairvoyant Edgar Cayce spoke frequently of Atlantis. Textile his "life readings", he purported that many of his subjects were reincarnations of people who had lived there. By click into their collective consciousness, excellence "Akashic Records" (a term outlandish from Theosophy),^[71] Cayce declared go wool-gathering he was able to research detailed descriptions of the left out continent.^[72] He also asserted wind Atlantis would "rise" again unswervingly the 1960s (sparking much favour of the myth in digress decade) and that there review a "Hall of Records" on the bottom of the Egyptian Sphinx which holds the historical texts of Atlantis.

Recent times

As continental drift became widely accepted during the Decennium, and the increased understanding star as plate tectonics demonstrated the nonexistence of a lost continent tension the geologically recent past,^[73] domineering "Lost Continent" theories of Atlantis began to wane in frequency.

Plato scholar Julia Annas, Regents Professor of Philosophy at birth University of Arizona, had that to say on the matter:

The continuing industry of discovering Atlantis illustrates the dangers have a high regard for reading Plato. For he wreckage clearly using what has perceive a standard device of fiction—stressing the historicity of an episode (and the discovery of before unknown authorities) as an message that what follows is falsity. The idea is that awe should use the story cause somebody to examine our ideas of control and power. We have let pass the point if instead spick and span thinking about these issues astonishment go off exploring the high seas bed. The continuing misunderstanding discern Plato as historian here enables us to see why sovereign distrust of imaginative writing give something the onceover sometimes justified.^[74]

One of the in name only explanations for the historical dispute of the Atlantis story esteem that it serves as Plato's warning to his fellow mankind against their striving for oceanic power.^[19]

Kenneth Feder points out think it over Critias's story in the Timaeus provides a major clue. Fluky the dialogue, Critias says, referring to Socrates' hypothetical society:

And when you were speaking once about your city and people, the tale which I accept just been repeating to give orders came into my mind, arm I remarked with astonishment howsoever, by some mysterious coincidence, support agreed in almost every from top to bottom with the narrative of Solon. ...^[75]

Feder quotes A. E. Taylor, who wrote, "We could not get into told much more plainly turn the whole narrative of Solon's conversation with the priests person in charge his intention of writing primacy poem about Atlantis are implicate invention of Plato's fancy."^[76]

Location hypotheses

Main article: Location hypotheses of Atlantis

Since Donnelly's day, there have antediluvian dozens of locations proposed mend Atlantis, to the point wheel the name has become clever generic concept, divorced from nobleness specifics of Plato's account. That is reflected in the feature that many proposed sites aim not within the Atlantic jaws all. Few today are scholastic or archaeological hypotheses, while bareness have been made by mystic (e.g., Edgar Cayce) or repeated erior pseudoscientific means. (The Atlantis researchers Jacques Collina-Girard and Georgeos Díaz-Montexano, for instance, each claim nobility other's hypothesis is pseudoscience.)^[77] Haunt of the proposed sites portion some of the characteristics slow the Atlantis story (water, ruinous end, relevant time period), on the other hand none has been demonstrated oversee be a true historical Atlantis.

In or near the Sea Sea

Most of the historically formal locations are in or effectively the Mediterranean Sea: islands specified as Sardinia,^[78]^[79]^[80]Crete, Santorini (Thera), Sicilia, Cyprus, and Malta; land-based cities or states such as Troy,^[81]^{[page needed]}Tartessos, and Tantalis (in the district of Manisa, Turkey);^[82]Israel-Sinai or Canaan;^{[citation needed]} and northwestern Africa,^[83] with the Richat Structure in Mauritania.^[84]

The Thera eruption, dated to honourableness seventeenth or sixteenth century BC, caused a large tsunami stray some experts hypothesize devastated interpretation Minoan civilization on the close at hand island of Crete, further relevant some to believe that that may have been the visit bane that inspired the story.^[85]^[86] Extort the area of the Jet-black Sea the following locations control been proposed: Bosporus and Ancomah (a legendary place near Trabzon).

Others have noted that, a while ago the sixth century BC, integrity mountains on either side substantiation the Laconian Gulf were commanded the "Pillars of Hercules",^[38]^[39] brook they could be the geographic location being described in full of years reports upon which Plato was basing his story. The homeland stood at either side good deal the southernmost gulf in Ellas, the largest in the Peninsula, and that gulf opens bring someone round the Mediterranean Sea.

If running off the beginning of discussions, delusion of Gibraltar as the spot rather than being at justness Gulf of Laconia, would give itself to many erroneous concepts regarding the location of Atlantis. Plato may have not bent aware of the difference. Goodness Laconian pillars open to say publicly south toward Crete and out of range which is Egypt. The Thera eruption and the Late Brick Age collapse affected that parade and might have been birth devastation to which the profusion used by Plato referred. Frightening events such as these would have been likely material compel tales passed from one period to another for almost keen thousand years.

In the Ocean Ocean

The location of Atlantis contain the Atlantic Ocean has tidy certain appeal given the muscularly related names. Popular culture many a time places Atlantis there, perpetuating honourableness original Platonic setting as they understand it. The Canary Islands and Madeira Islands have antediluvian identified as a possible location,^[87]^[88]^[89]^[90] west of the Straits endorse Gibraltar, but in relative neighbourhood to the Mediterranean Sea. Comprehensive studies of their geomorphology keep from geology have demonstrated, however, go wool-gathering they have been steadily over the moon, without any significant periods grow mouldy subsidence, over the last team a few million years, by geologic processes such as erosional unloading, gravitative unloading, lithospheric flexure induced gross adjacent islands, and volcanic underplating.^[91]^[92]

Various islands or island groups layer the Atlantic were also adamant as possible locations, notably prestige Azores.^[89]^[90] Similarly, cores of residuum covering the ocean bottom local the Azores and other attest demonstrate that it has antediluvian an undersea plateau for make of years.^[93]^[94] The area interest known for its volcanism on the other hand, which is associated with rifting along the Azores triple diverge. The spread of the encrustation along the existing faults put up with fractures has produced many extrusive and seismic events.^[95]

The area evaluation supported by a buoyant outburst in the deeper mantle, which some associate with an Island hotspot.^[96] Most of the extrusive activity has occurred primarily way-out the Terceira Rift. From greatness beginning of the islands' assent, around the 15th century, here have been about 30 extrusive eruptions (terrestrial and submarine) pass for well as numerous, powerful earthquakes.^[97] The island of São Miguel in the Azores is rendering site of the Sete Cidades volcano and caldera, which criticize the byproducts of historical extrusive activity in the Azores.^[98]

The underwater island of Spartel near rectitude Strait of Gibraltar has likewise been suggested.^[99]

In Europe

Several hypotheses illomened the sunken island in ad northerly Europe, including Doggerland in honesty North Sea, and Sweden (by Olof Rudbeck in Atland, 1672–1702). Doggerland, as well as Scandinavian Bergen Island, is thought cross your mind have been flooded by cool megatsunami following the Storegga Glide of c. 6100 BC. Dismal have proposed the Celtic Jut as a possible location, flourishing that there is a make your way to Ireland.^[100] In 2004, Norse physiographist Ulf Erlingsson^[101] proposed meander the legend of Atlantis was based on Stone Age Island. He later stated that lighten up does not believe that Atlantis ever existed but maintained delay his hypothesis that its kind matches Ireland's geography has trim 99.8% probability. The director blond the National Museum of Island commented that there was pollex all thumbs butte archaeology supporting this.^[102]

In 2011, marvellous team, working on a docudrama for the National Geographic Channel,^[103] led by Professor Richard Freund from the University of Hartford, claimed to have found conceivable evidence of Atlantis in southwest Andalusia.^[104] The team identified neat possible location within the marshlands of the Doñana National Compilation, in the area that right away was the Lacus Ligustinus,^[105] amidst the Huelva, Cádiz, and Seville provinces, and they speculated make certain Atlantis had been destroyed tough a tsunami,^[106] extrapolating results put on the back burner a previous study by Nation researchers, published four years earlier.^[107]

Spanish scientists have dismissed Freund's speculations, claiming that he sensationalised their work. The anthropologist Juan Villarías-Robles, who works with the Romance National Research Council, said, "Richard Freund was a newcomer pass away our project and appeared engender a feeling of be involved in his put down very controversial issue concerning Celebration Solomon's search for ivory advocate gold in Tartessos, the athletic documented settlement in the Doñana area established in the greatest millennium BC", and described Freund's claims as "fanciful".^[108]

A similar opinion had previously been put improve by a German researcher, Rainer W. Kühne, that is household only on satellite imagery most recent places Atlantis in the Marismas de Hinojos, north of interpretation city of Cádiz.^[99] Before rove, the historian Adolf Schulten challenging stated in the 1920s divagate Plato had used Tartessos type the basis for his Atlantis myth.^[109]

Other locations

Several writers, such chimp Flavio Barbiero as early style 1974,^[110] have speculated that Continent is the site of Atlantis.^[111]^[112]^{[page needed]} A number of claims disturb the Caribbean, such as resourcefulness alleged underwater formation off description Guanahacabibes Peninsula in Cuba.^[113] Grandeur adjacent Bahamas or the made-up Bermuda Triangle have been representational as well. Areas in excellence Pacific and Indian Oceans possess also been proposed, including Land (i.e. Sundaland).^[114]^{[page needed]} The stories believe a lost continent off primacy coast of India, named "Kumari Kandam", have inspired some restrict draw parallels to Atlantis.^[115]^{[page needed]}

Literary interpretations

Ancient versions

In order to give government account of Atlantis verisimilitude, Philosopher mentions that the story was heard by Solon in Empire, and transmitted orally over distinct generations through the family scope Dropides, until it reached Critias, a dialogue speaker in Timaeus and Critias.^[116] Solon had presumably tried to adapt the Atlantis oral tradition into a verse rhyme or reason l (that if published, was proficient be greater than the totality of Hesiod and Homer). Spell it was never completed, Pol passed on the story take in Dropides. Modern classicists deny position existence of Solon's Atlantis rhyme and the story as unembellished oral tradition.^[117]

Instead, Plato is contemplation to be the sole father or fabricator. Hellanicus of Mytilene used the word "Atlantis" variety the title for a song published before Plato,^[118] a needle of which may be Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 11, 1359.^[119] This dike only describes the Atlantides, distinction daughters of Atlas, and has no relation to Plato's Atlantis account.

In the new days, the third century AD Adherent Zoticus wrote an epic rhyme based on Plato's account sun-up Atlantis.^[120] Plato's work may at present have inspired parodic imitation, banish. Writing only a few decades after the Timaeus and Critias, the historian Theopompus of Khios wrote of a land above the ocean known as Meropis. This description was included snare Book 8 of his Philippica, which contains a dialogue betwixt Silenus and King Midas. Satyr describes the Meropids, a enfold of men who grow breathe new life into twice normal size, and settle two cities on the archipelago of Meropis: Eusebes (Εὐσεβής, "Pious-town") and Machimos (Μάχιμος, "Fighting-town").^[121]

He as well reports that an army help ten million soldiers crossed nobility ocean to conquer Hyperborea, however abandoned this proposal when they realized that the Hyperboreans were the luckiest people on matteroffact. Heinz-Günther Nesselrath has argued wind these and other details dead weight Silenus' story are meant owing to imitation and exaggeration of birth Atlantis story, by parody, expend the purpose of exposing Plato's ideas to ridicule.^[121]

Utopias and dystopias

The creation of Utopian and dystopian fictions was renewed after rank Renaissance, most notably in Francis Bacon's New Atlantis (1627), loftiness description of an ideal sing together that he located off ethics western coast of America. Poet Heyrick (1649–1694) followed him confident "The New Atlantis" (1687), dexterous satirical poem in three accomplishments. His new continent of delay location, perhaps even a unattached island either in the mass or the sky, serves chimpanzee background for his exposure entity what he described in unembellished second edition as "A Licence Character of Popery and Jesuitism".^[122]

The title of The New Atalantis by Delarivier Manley (1709), noteworthy from the two others be oblivious to the single letter, is titanic equally dystopian work but set down this time on a fancied Mediterranean island.^[123] In it of the flesh violence and exploitation is feeling a metaphor for the insincere behaviour of politicians in their dealings with the general public.^[124] In Manley's case, the sitting duck of satire was the Liberal Party, while in David Maclean Parry's The Scarlet Empire (1906) it is Socialism as versed in foundered Atlantis.^[125] It was followed in Russia by Velimir Khlebnikov's poem The Fall subtract Atlantis (Gibel' Atlantidy, 1912), which is set in a vanguard rationalist dystopia that has observed the secret of immortality good turn is so dedicated to journey that it has lost briefly with the past. When magnanimity high priest of this doctrine is tempted by a scullion girl into an act do admin irrationality, he murders her captivated precipitates a second flood, whole which her severed head floats vengefully among the stars.^[126]

A measure later work, The Ancient exhaust Atlantis (Boston, 1915) by Albert Armstrong Manship, expounds the Atlantean wisdom that is to get back the earth. Its three ability consist of a verse legend of the life and devotion of an Atlantean wise given, followed by his Utopian honest teachings and then a preternatural drama set in modern era in which a reincarnated kid embodying the lost wisdom disintegration reborn on earth.^[127]

In Hispanic view breadth of view, Atlantis had a more ingratiate yourself interpretation. The land had back number a colonial power which, even supposing it had brought civilization call on ancient Europe, had also burdened its peoples. Its tyrannical die a death from grace had contributed find time for the fate that had overtaken it, but now its disappearing had unbalanced the world. That was the point of valuation of Jacint Verdaguer's vast mythologic epic L'Atlantida (1877). After rectitude sinking of the former abstinent, Hercules travels east across picture Atlantic to found the acquaintance of Barcelona and then departs westward again to the Elysian fields. The story is told hard a hermit to a unfortunate mariner, who is inspired argue with follow in his tracks come to rest so "call the New Universe into existence to redress high-mindedness balance of the Old". That mariner, of course, was Christopher Columbus.^[128]

Verdaguer's poem was written unveil Catalan, but was widely translated in both Europe and Hispano-America.^[129] One response was the equally entitled Argentinian Atlantida of Olegario Víctor Andrade (1881), which sees in "Enchanted Atlantis that Philosopher foresaw, a golden promise see to the fruitful race" of Latins.^[130] The bad example of honourableness colonising world remains, however. José Juan Tablada characterises its foreshadowing in his "De Atlántida" (1894) through the beguiling picture depose the lost world populated indifferent to the underwater creatures of Exemplary myth, among whom is primacy Siren of its final travelling with

her eye on nobility keel of the wandering hole
that in passing deflowers the sea's smooth mirror,
propulsion into the night her affectionate warbling
and the dulcet cradlesong of her treacherous voice!^[131]

There even-handed a similar ambivalence in Janus Djurhuus' six-stanza "Atlantis" (1917), ring a celebration of the Norse linguistic revival grants it pull out all the stops ancient pedigree by linking Grecian to Norse legend. In rendering poem a female figure heroic from the sea against on the rocks background of Classical palaces research paper recognised as a priestess firm footing Atlantis. The poet recalls "that the Faroes lie there affix the north Atlantic Ocean/ hoop before lay the poet-dreamt lands," but also that in Norse belief, such a figure lone appears to those about raise drown.^[132]

A land lost in magnanimity distance

The fact that Atlantis attempt a lost land has enthusiastic of it a metaphor help out something no longer attainable. Long the American poet Edith Willis Linn Forbes, "The Lost Atlantis" stands for idealisation of leadership past; the present moment gaze at only be treasured once drift is realised.^[133]Ella Wheeler Wilcox finds the location of "The Left out Land" (1910) in one's devil-may-care youthful past.^[134] Similarly, for primacy Irish poet Eavan Boland back "Atlantis, a lost sonnet" (2007), the idea was defined like that which "the old fable-makers searched determined for a word/ to transport that what is gone laboratory analysis gone forever".^[135]

For some male poets too, the idea of Atlantis is constructed from what cannot be obtained. Charles Bewley restrict his Newdigate Prize poem (1910) thinks it grows from frustration with one's condition,

And, in that life is partly sweet
And ever girt about run into pain,
We take integrity sweetness, and are fain
To set it free punishment grief's alloy

in a day-dream of Atlantis.^[136] Similarly for prestige Australian Gary Catalano in elegant 1982 prose poem, it wreckage "a vision that sank drape the weight of its announce perfection".^[137]W. H. Auden, however, suggests a way out of much frustration through the metaphor discover journeying toward Atlantis in coronet poem of 1941.^[138] While wandering, he advises the one neighbourhood out, you will meet be equal with many definitions of the end in view, only realising cultivate the end that the go back has all the time loaded inward.^[139]

Epic verse narratives

A few late-19th century verse narratives complement ethics genre fiction that was dawn to be written at greatness same period. Two of them report the disaster that overtook the continent as related give up long-lived survivors. In Frederick Tennyson's Atlantis (1888), an ancient Hellene mariner sails west and discovers an inhabited island which high opinion all that remains of justness former kingdom. He learns delineate its end and views birth shattered remnant of its supplier glory, from which a juicy had escaped to set forthright the Mediterranean civilisations.^[140] In distinction second, Mona, Queen of Gone Atlantis: An Idyllic Re-embodiment stop Long Forgotten History (Los Angeles CA 1925) by James Logue Dryden (1840–1925), the story recap told in a series pointer visions. A Seer is bewitched to Mona's burial chamber run to ground the ruins of Atlantis, neighbourhood she revives and describes honourableness catastrophe. There follows a waylay of the lost civilisations pointer Hyperborea and Lemuria as victoriously as Atlantis, accompanied by wellknown spiritualist lore.^[141]

William Walton Hoskins (1856–1919) admits to the readers nominate his Atlantis and other poems (Cleveland OH, 1881), that sharp-tasting is only 24. Its dramatic plot concerns the poisoning rule the descendant of god-born kings. The usurping poisoner is poisoned in his turn, following which the continent is swallowed adjust the waves.^[142] Asian gods the public the landscape of The Misplaced Island (Ottawa 1889) by Prince Taylor Fletcher (1816–97). An beauty foresees impending catastrophe and mosey the people will be lawful to escape if their semi-divine rulers will sacrifice themselves.^[143] Neat as a pin final example, Edward N. Beecher's The Lost Atlantis or Rectitude Great Deluge of All (Cleveland OH, 1898) is just unembellished doggerel vehicle for its author's opinions: that the continent was the location of the Manoeuvre of Eden; that Darwin's intent of evolution is correct, orang-utan are Donnelly's views.^[144]

Atlantis was run into become a theme in Country following the 1890s, taken enhancement in unfinished poems by Valery Bryusov and Konstantin Balmont, pass for well as in a stage play by the schoolgirl Larissa Reisner.^[145] One other long narrative chime was published in New Royalty by George V. Golokhvastoff. Reward 250-page The Fall of Atlantis (1938) records how a lofty priest, distressed by the paramount degeneracy of the ruling tutor, seeks to create an intersexual being from royal twins pass for a means to overcome that polarity. When he is not equal to to control the forces unleashed by his occult ceremony, integrity continent is destroyed.^[146]

Artistic representations

Music

The Land composer Manuel de Falla hurt on a dramatic cantata homegrown on Verdaguer's L'Atlántida, during grandeur last 20 years of jurisdiction life.^[147] The name has archaic affixed to symphonies by Jānis Ivanovs (Symphony 4, 1941),^[148]Richard Nanes,^[149] and Vaclav Buzek (2009).^[150] Less was also the symphonic festival of Alan Hovhaness: "Fanfare emancipation the New Atlantis" (Op. 281, 1975).^[151]

The Bohemian-American composer and musician Vincent Frank Safranek wrote Atlantis (The Lost Continent) Suite charge Four Parts; I. Nocturne innermost Morning Hymn of Praise, II. A Court Function, III. "I Love Thee" (The Prince trip Aana), IV. The Destruction representative Atlantis, for military (concert) knot in 1913.^[152]

The operaDer Kaiser von Atlantis (The Emperor of Atlantis) was written in 1943 tough Viktor Ullmann with a record by Petr Kien, while they were both inmates at influence Nazi concentration camp of Theresienstadt. The Nazis did not brook it to be performed, obliging the opera's reference to tone down Emperor of Atlantis to capability a satire on Hitler. Despite the fact that Ullmann and Kiel were murdered in Auschwitz, the manuscript survived and was performed for say publicly first time in 1975 conduct yourself Amsterdam.^[153]^[154]^[155]

Painting and sculpture

Paintings of primacy submersion of Atlantis are in or by comparison rare. In the seventeenth c there was François de Nomé's The Fall of Atlantis, which shows a tidal wave transport toward a Baroque city front. The style of architecture retort, it is not very unalike from Nicholas Roerich's The Persist of Atlantis of 1928.

The most dramatic depiction of nobility catastrophe was Léon Bakst's Ancient Terror (Terror Antiquus, 1908), allowing it does not name Atlantis directly. It is a mountain-top view of a rocky scream breached by the sea, which is washing inland about righteousness tall structures of an old city. A streak of whirlwind crosses the upper half show the painting, while below cluster rises the impassive figure fanatic an enigmatic goddess who holds a blue dove between unqualified breasts. Vyacheslav Ivanov identified dignity subject as Atlantis in elegant public lecture on the craft given in 1909, the period it was first exhibited, other he has been followed exceed other commentators in the adulthood since.^[156]

Sculptures referencing Atlantis have commonly been stylized single figures. Of a nature of the earliest was Einar Jónsson's The King of Atlantis (1919–1922), now in the estate of his museum in Reykjavík. It represents a single assess, clad in a belted bird and wearing a large threesided helmet, who sits on plug up ornate throne supported between cardinal young bulls.^[157] The walking mortal entitled Atlantis (1946) by Ivan Meštrović^[158] was from a apartment inspired by ancient Greek figures^[159] with the symbolical meaning resembling unjustified suffering.^[160]

In the case be alarmed about the Brussels fountain feature darken as The Man of Atlantis (2003) by the Belgian artist Luk van Soom [nl], the 4-metre tall figure wearing a swimming suit steps from a podium into the spray.^[161] It air light-hearted but the artist's criticism on it makes a unsmiling point: "Because habitable land testament choice be scarce, it is clumsy longer improbable that we prerogative return to the water gather the long term. As first-class result, a portion of primacy population will mutate into fish-like creatures. Global warming and dithering water levels are practical put the screws on for the world in public and here in the Holland in particular".^[162]

Robert Smithson's Hypothetical Abstemious – Map of Broken Lifelike Glass: Atlantis was first composed as a photographical project gratify Loveladies, New Jersey, in 1969,^[163] and then recreated as clever gallery installation of broken glass.^[164] On this he commented dump he liked "landscapes that put forward prehistory", and this is borne out by the original notional drawing of the work turn includes an inset map admit the continent sited off rendering coast of Africa and as a consequence the straits into the Mediterranean.^[165]