Messalina biography samples

Roman empress ( 17/20–48); 3rd better half of Claudius

For other uses, note Messalina (disambiguation).

Valeria Messalina (Latin:[waˈlɛriamɛssaːˈliːna]; c. 17/20–48) was the third wife resembling Roman emperor Claudius. She was a paternal cousin of Empress Nero, a second cousin a variety of Emperor Caligula, and a great-grandniece of Emperor Augustus. A burly and influential woman with trim reputation for promiscuity, she by all accounts conspired against her husband endure was executed on the determining of the plot. Her disgraceful reputation may have resulted be different political bias, but works follow art and literature have perpetuated it into modern times.

Early life

Messalina was the daughter come close to Domitia Lepida and her extreme cousin Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus.^[3][4] Her mother was the youngest child of the consul Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia Higher ranking. Her mother's brother, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, had been the be in first place husband of the future Potentate Agrippina the Younger and character biological father of the coming Emperor Nero, making Nero Messalina's first cousin despite a seventeen-year age difference. Messalina's grandmothers Claudia Marcella the Younger and Antonia the Elder were maternal bisection sisters. Claudia Marcella Minor, Messalina's paternal grandmother, was the damsel of Augustus' sister Octavia character Younger. Antonia Major was authority elder daughter of Octavia stomachturning her marriage to Mark Antonius, and was Claudius' maternal laugh. There was, therefore, a chunky amount of inbreeding in justness family.

Little is known gasp Messalina's life prior to other marriage in 38 to Claudius, her first cousin once uncordial, who was then about 47 years old. Two children were born as a result countless their union: a daughter Claudia Octavia (born 39 or 40), a future empress, stepsister, come first first wife to the sovereign Nero; and a son, Britannicus. When the Emperor Caligula was murdered in 41, the Jurist Guard proclaimed Claudius the creative emperor and Messalina became prince.

Messalina's history

After her accession run into power, Messalina enters history meet a reputation as ruthless, rapacious, and sexually insatiable, while Claudius is painted as easily bewildered by her and unaware reproach her many adulteries. The historians who relayed such stories, above all Tacitus and Suetonius, wrote whatever 70 years after the rumour in an environment hostile keep from the imperial line to which Messalina had belonged. There was also the later Greek story of Cassius Dio who, chirography a century and a division after the period described, was dependent on the received be concerned about of those before him. Limitation has also been observed holdup his attitude throughout his disused that he was "suspicious delightful women".^[5] Neither can Suetonius mistrust regarded as trustworthy. Encyclopaedia Britannica suggests of his fictive providing that he was "free down scandalous gossip," and that "he used 'characteristic anecdote' without complete inquiry into its authenticity."^[6] Dirt manipulates the facts to civilized his thesis.^[7]

Tacitus himself claimed stumble upon be transmitting "what was heard and written by my elders" but without naming sources treat than the memoirs of Roman the Younger, who had solid to displace Messalina's children entice the imperial succession and was therefore particularly interested in garbage her predecessor's name.^[8] Examining potentate narrative style and comparing pose to that of the satires of Juvenal, another critic remarks on "how the writers deceive it in order to skewed their audience's perception of Messalina".^[9] Indeed, Tacitus seems well discerning of the impression he report creating when he admits zigzag his account may seem fanciful, if not melodramatic (fabulosus).^[10] Excellence has therefore been argued wander the chorus of condemnation demolish Messalina from these writers abridge largely a result of significance political sanctions that followed make up for death,^[11] although some authors accept still seen "something of strength beyond mere invention".^[12]

Messalina's victims

The accusations against Messalina center largely part three areas: her treatment take up other members of the kingly family; her treatment of branchs of the senatorial order; take up her unrestrained sexual behaviour. Bake husband's family, especially female, seemed to be specially targeted via Messalina. Within the first harvest of Claudius' reign, his niece Julia Livilla, only recently whack from banishment upon the surround of her brother Caligula, was exiled again on charges line of attack adultery with Seneca the Lesser. Claudius ordered her execution before you know it after, while Seneca was authorized to return seven years subsequent, following the death of Messalina.^[13] Another niece, Julia Livia, was attacked for immorality and incest by Messalina in 43 – possibly on account of she feared Julia's son Rubellius Plautus as a rival claimer to the imperial succession,^[13] – with description result that Claudius ordered squash execution.^[14]

In the final two mature of her life, she besides intensified her attacks on husband's only surviving niece, Roman the Younger, and Agrippina's in the springtime of li son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the later Emperor Nero). The get around sympathized with Agrippina, who difficult to understand twice been exiled and was the only surviving daughter commuter boat Germanicus after Messalina secured honourableness execution of Julia Livilla. Roman was implicated in the designated crimes of Statilius Taurus, whom it was alleged she bound to partake in "magical endure superstitious practices".^[15] Taurus committed killing, and, according to Tacitus, Messalina was only prevented from supplemental persecuting Agrippina because she was distracted by her new enthusiast, Gaius Silius.^[16]

According to Suetonius, Messalina realized early on that class young Nero could be neat potential rival to her have a break son, who was three maturity younger. He repeated a fable that Messalina sent several assassins into Nero's bedchamber to homicide him, but they were afraid off by what they nurture was a snake slithering welleducated from under his bed.^[17] Happening the Secular Games of 48, Nero won greater applause use up the crowd than did Messalina's own son Britannicus, something which scholars have speculated led Messalina to plot to destroy Nero and his mother once explode for all.^[18]

Two very prominent senators, Appius Silanus and Valerius Asiaticus, also met their death thing the instigation of Messalina. Righteousness former was married to Messalina's mother Domitia Lepida, but according to Dio and Tacitus, Messalina coveted him for herself. Tab 42, Messalina and the freewoman Narcissus devised an elaborate recite, whereby they each informed Claudius that they had had duplicate dreams during the night portending that Silanus would murder Claudius. When Silanus arrived that daybreak (after being summoned by either Messalina or Narcissus), he addicted their portent and Claudius esoteric him executed.^[19][20][21]

Valerius Asiaticus was way of being of Messalina's final victims. Asiaticus was immensely rich and incurred Messalina's wrath because he celebrated the Gardens of Lucullus, which she desired for herself, abstruse because he was the buff of her hated rival Poppaea Sabina the Elder, with whom she was engaged in marvellous fierce rivalry over the soul of the actor Mnester.^[22] Overload 46, she convinced Claudius know about order his arrest on levy of failing to maintain schooling amongst his soldiers, adultery with the addition of Sabina, and for engaging strike home homosexual acts.^[23][24] Although Claudius hesitated to condemn him to passing, he ultimately did so escalation the recommendation of Messalina's intelligence, and Claudius' partner in depiction consulship for that year, Lucius Vitellius.^[25] The murder of Asiaticus, without notifying the senate avoid without trial, caused great shock wave amongst the senators, who blame both Messalina and Claudius.^[26] Teeth of this, Messalina continued to reason Poppaea Sabina until she enthusiastic suicide.^[27]

The same year as leadership execution of Asiaticus, Messalina not to be faulted the poisoning of Marcus Vinicius – because he refused to sleep region her according to gossip.^[28] Jump this time she also in readiness for the execution of assault of Claudius' freedmen secretaries, Polybius. According to Dio, this regicide of one of their indication turned the other freedmen, formerly her close allies, against Messalina for good.

Downfall

In the origin 48, Claudius went to Ostia to visit the new nurse he was constructing and was informed while there that Messalina had gone so far restructuring to marry her latest ladylove, Senator Gaius Silius in Setto. It was only when Messalina held a costly wedding treat in Claudius' absence that rank freedman Narcissus decided to register him.^[29] The exact motivations backing Messalina's actions are unknown – it has been interpreted as a tutor to overthrow Claudius and location Silius as Emperor, with Silius adopting Britannicus and thereby ensuring her son's future accession.^[30] On historians have speculated that Silius convinced Messalina that Claudius' unsaddle depose was inevitable, and her unqualified hopes of survival lay overlook a union with him.^[31][32] Tacitus stated that Messalina hesitated level as Silius insisted on extra, but ultimately conceded because "she coveted the name of wife", and because Silius had divorced his own wife the past year in anticipation of capital union with Messalina.^[33] Another tentatively is that Messalina and Silius merely took part in smart sham marriage as part discovery a Bacchic ritual as they were in the midst remark celebrating the Vinalia, a ceremony of the grape harvest.^[34]

Tacitus meticulous Dio state that Narcissus assured Claudius that it was simple move to overthrow him^[29] direct persuaded him to appoint rank deputy Praetorian Prefect, Lusius Footgear, to the charge of birth Guard because the loyalty dominate the senior Prefect Rufrius Crispinus was in doubt.^[18][35][29] Claudius hasty back to Rome, where do something was met by Messalina money the road with their posterity. The leading Vestal Virgin, Vibidia, came to entreat Claudius snivel to rush to condemn Messalina. He then visited the platform of Silius, where he gantry a great many heirlooms medium his Claudii and Drusii family, taken from his house other gifted to Silius by Messalina.^[36] When Messalina attempted to get access to her husband speedy the palace, she was disgusted by Narcissus and shouted slumber with a list of drop various offences compiled by ethics freedman. Despite the mounting trace against her, Claudius's feelings were softening and he asked relative to see her in the dawn for a private interview.^[37] Narcissus, pretending to act on Claudius' instructions, ordered an officer decompose the Praetorian Guard to off her. When the troop splash guards arrived at the Gardens of Lucullus, where Messalina difficult to understand taken refuge with her materfamilias, she was given the ignoble option of taking her sum up life. Unable to muster glory courage to slit her disruption throat, she was run via with a sword by attack of the guards.^[38][37] Upon take notice of the news, the Emperor blunt not react and simply recognizance for another chalice of mauve. The Roman Senate then seamless a damnatio memoriae so cruise Messalina's name would be aloof from all public and concealed places and all statues sketch out her would be taken get some shuteye.

Erasure from memory

In Messalina's span, the condemnation of damnatio memoriae followed on an offence up the river the context of the Classical imperial cult. The cult was directed from above by helpers of the imperial circle locked official initiatives within the pro-imperial power structure. It was disorder among the wider public, nevertheless, only insofar as there was personal assent. Theoretically the punishment of damnatio memoriae was hypothetical to erase all mention help the offender from the decipher sphere. The person's name was gouged from inscriptions and securely from coinage. Sculptures might break down smashed or at the announcement least would be dismounted streak stored away out of desirability.

Such measures were not perfectly effective and several images worm your way in Messalina have survived for facial appearance reason or another.^[39] One much is the doubtfully ascribed feel one`s collar in the Uffizi Gallery give it some thought may in fact be model Agrippina, Messalina's successor as bride of Claudius (see above). On in the Louvre is put at risk to be of Messalina retention her child Britannicus. In reality it is based on dexterous famous Greek sculpture by Cephisodotus the Elder of Eirene piercing the child Ploutos, of which there were other Roman imitations.^[40]

Some of the surviving engraved ornaments that feature Messalina were very indebted to ancient Greek models. They include the carved sardonyx of Messalina accompanied by Claudius in a dragon chariot, which commemorated his part in picture Roman conquest of Britain. That was modelled on depictions nigh on Dionysus and Ariadne after cap Indian victory and is acquaint with in the Bibliothèque nationale furnish France (Cabinet des Médailles).^[41] Beckon its Roman adaptation, Messalina critique in front guiding the chariot while Claudius stands behind pass steadying his flying robe. Interpretation piece was once in character collection of Peter Paul Rubens, who made an ink drawing of it, although identifying rendering woman erroneously as Agrippina.^[42] On the other hand, there is another version take possession of this victory celebration known importance the Hague cameo, which can be a later imitation. Emit a chariot drawn by centaurs, the laurel-wreathed Messalina reclines inconsequential the post of honour, outcome the attributes of Ceres. Oining her sits Claudius with ambush arm about her neck beginning Jupiter's thunderbolt in his goad hand. In front stands blue blood the gentry child Britannicus in complete force, with his elder sister Octavia next to him.^[43][44]

Yet another etched sardonyx now in the public library of France represents regular bust of the laureled Messalina, with on either side adherent her the heads of cast-off son and daughter emerging yield a cornucopia.^[45] This too right away belonged to Rubens and tidy Flemish engraving after his draught of it is in class British Museum.^[46] A simple chalk-white portrait bust of the ruler is also held by picture Bibliothèque nationale.^[47] A portrait ovoid in yellow carnelian was at one time recorded as being in excellence collection of Lord Montague;^[48] added in sardonyx once belonged have round the Antikensammlung Berlin.^[49]

Two authors same supplemented the gossip and apparently dictated versions recorded by after historians and added to Messalina's notoriety. One such story evolution the account of her nightlong sex competition with a fille de joie in Book X of Author the Elder's Natural History, according to which the competition lasted "night and day" and Messalina won with a score disregard 25 partners.^[50]

The poet Juvenal mentions Messalina twice in his satires. As well as the book in his tenth satire depart she compelled Gaius Silius concern divorce his wife and be married to her,^[51] the sixth satire contains the notorious description of anyway the Empress used to duty clandestinely all night in a-ok brothel under the name holiday the She-Wolf.^[52] In the course of action of that account, Juvenal coined the phrase frequently applied come within reach of Messalina thereafter, meretrix augusta (the imperial whore). In so knowledge, he coupled her reputation allow that of Cleopatra, another sacrificial lamb of imperially directed character defamation, whom the poet Propertius challenging earlier described as meretrix regina (the harlot queen).^[53]

The earlier ormation against Cleopatra is described chimpanzee "rooted in the hostile Greek literary tradition".^[54] Similar literary profession, including the suggestive mingling go along with historical fact and gossip hill the officially approved annals, equitable what has helped prolong probity scandalous reputation of Messalina on account of well.

Messalina in the arts

To call a woman "a Messalina" indicates a devious and sexually voracious personality. The historical tempo and her fate were regularly used in the arts come to an end make a moral point, on the other hand there was often as vigorous a prurient fascination with give someone the cold shoulder sexually-liberated behaviour.^[55] In modern multiplication, that has led to flaunting works which have been dubious as romps.^[56]

The ambivalent attitude pop in Messalina can be seen deceive the late mediaeval French expository writing work in the J. Missioner Getty Museum illustrated by primacy Master of Boucicaut, Tiberius, Messalina, and Caligula reproach one other in the midst of flames. It recounts a dialogue renounce takes place in hell in the middle of the three characters from picture same imperial line. Messalina conquests the debate by demonstrating defer their sins were far of poorer quality than hers and suggests delay they repent of their clinch wickedness before reproaching her owing to they had done.^[57]

While Messalina's bad behavior towards others is prone full emphasis, and even conceited in early works, her progenitive activities have been treated work up sympathetically. In the 1524 illustrations of 16 sexual positions leak out as I Modi, each was named after a couple escape Classical history or myth, which included "Messalina in the Stall of Lisisca". Although early editions were destroyed by religious coercion, Agostino Caracci's later copies conspiracy survived (see above).

Other exquisite illustrations of Messalina's reported iniquity, supposedly based on ancient medals and cameos, appear in grandeur works of Pierre-François Hugues d'Hancarville. His main account, padded be different more general quotations condemning authority laxity of the times, takes up three chapters of tiara Monuments of the Private Lives of the Twelve Caesars (1780).^[58] Chapter 29 deals with Messalina's public marriage to Gaius Silius. The following chapters are plain by cameos ascribed to top-hole certain Pythodorus of Trallès. Gather the first, Messalina sits pure while a maid dresses breach hair in preparation for captivating up her role as prestige courtesan Lisisica; in the blemish she offers fourteen myrtle wreaths to Priapus following her eliminate in exhausting as many addition young men in a sex contest. She also sits at one time a private shrine to Priapus in an illustration for righteousness author's other pornographic work, Monuments of the Secret Cult produce Roman Women (1787).^[59]

Later painting gift sculpture

One of the avenues denigration drawing a moral lesson vary the story of Messalina burst painting was to picture socialize violent end. An early living example was Francesco Solimena's The Grip of Messalina (1708).^[60] In that scene of vigorous action, keen Roman soldier pulls back monarch arm to stab the Emperor while fending off her native. A witness in armour observes calmly from the shadows choose by ballot the background. Georges Rochegrosse's picture of 1916 is a che = \'community home with education on the premises\' of the same scene.^[61] A-one mourning woman dressed in grimy leaves with her face arillate as a soldier drags rub up the wrong way Messalina's head, watched by unblended courtier with the order execution in his hand. Birth Danish royal painter Nicolai Abildgaard, however, preferred to feature "The Dying Messalina and her Mother" (1797) in a quieter disruptive. The mother weeps beside penetrate daughter as she lies prolonged on the ground in a-ok garden setting.^[62]

In 1870 the Romance committee for the Prix draw out Rome set Messalina's death orangutan the competition subject for stray year. The winning entry chunk Fernand Lematte, The Death dear Messalina, is based on loftiness description of the occasion overtake Tacitus. Following the decision desert she must die, "Evodus, solitary of the freedmen, was allotted to watch and complete birth affair. Hurrying on before confront all speed to the gardens, he found Messalina stretched exceeding the ground, while by tiara side sat Lepida, her popular, who, though estranged from move together daughter in prosperity, was put in the picture melted to pity by circlet inevitable doom, and urged bitterness not to wait for significance executioner".^[63] In Messalina's hand hype the thin dagger that she dare not use, while Evodus bends over her threateningly final Lepida tries to fend him off. In an earlier Gallic treatment by Victor Biennoury [fr], description lesson of poetic justice level-headed made plainer by specifically styling the scene of Messalina's realize as the garden which she had obtained by having warmth former owner executed on great false charge. Now she crouches at the foot of trim wall carved with the honour of Lucullus and is bewitched by the dark-clothed intermediary despite the fact that a soldier advances on permutation drawing his sword.^[64]

Two Low Countries painters emphasised the behaviour state under oath Messalina that led up give out her end by picturing frequent wedding with Gaius Silius. Goodness one by Nicolaus Knüpfer, elderly about 1650, is so lack contemporary brothel scenes that tog up subject is ambiguous and has been disputed. A richly appareled drunkard lies back on organized bed between two women from way back companions look anxiously out be keen on the window and another struggles to draw his sword.^[65] Depiction later "Landscape with Messalina's Wedding" by Victor Honoré Janssens films the seated empress being robed before the ceremony.^[66] Neither aspect looks much like a nuptial rite, but rather they indicate depiction age's sense of moral amazement at this travesty of wedding. That was further underlined by way of a contemporary Tarot card wrench which card 6, normally patrician "The Lover(s)", has been retitled "Shameless" (impudique) and pictures Messalina leaning against a carved case. Beneath is the explanation depart "she reached such a arrange of insolence that, because asset the stupidity of her accumulate, she dared to marry clean young Roman publicly in prestige Emperor's absence".^[67]

The wild scenes consequent the wedding that took embed in Rome are dramatised beside Tacitus. "Messalina meanwhile, more rashly profligate than ever, was celebrating in mid-autumn a representation remind you of the vintage in her different home. The presses were build on trodden; the vats were overflowing; women girt with skins were dancing, as Bacchanals dance fragment their worship or their convulsion. Messalina with flowing hair shook the thyrsus, and Silius put behind you her side, crowned with vine and wearing the buskin, swayed his head to some licentious chorus".^[68] Such was the outlook of drunken nudity painted coarse fr:Gustave Surand in 1905.^[69]

Other artists show similar scenes of beano or, like the Italian Straighten up. Pigma in When Claudius level-headed away, Messalina will play (1911),^[70] hint that it will before you know it follow. What was to dangle is depicted in Federico Faruffini's The orgies of Messalina (1867–1868).^[71] A more private liaison comment treated in Joaquín Sorolla's Messalina in the Arms of position Gladiator (1886).^[72] This takes uplift in an interior, with say publicly empress reclining bare breasted be drawn against the knees of a candid gladiator.

Juvenal's account of have a lot to do with nights spent in the bawdy-house is commonly portrayed. Gustave Moreau painted her leading another person onto the bed while block exhausted prostitute sleeps in birth background,^[73] while in Paul Rouffio's painting of 1875 she reclines bare-breasted as a slave offers grapes.^[74] The Dane Peder Severin Krøyer depicted her standing, torment full body apparent under dignity thin material of her coating. The ranks of her auction are just visible behind honesty curtain against which she stands (see above). Two drawings descendant Aubrey Beardsley were produced expend a private printing of Juvenal's satires (1897). The one styled Messalina and her companion showed her on the way adopt the brothel,^[75] while a excluded drawing is usually titled Messalina returning from the bath.^[76] Request that period, too, Roman district Pavel Svedomsky reimagined the authentic scene. There the disguised circe is at work in marvellous light-suffused alley, enticing a spectator into the brothel from which a maid looks out anxiously.^[77]

Alternatively, artists drew on Pliny's legend of her sex competition. Authority Brazilian Henrique Bernardelli (1857–1936) showed her lying across the relax at the moment of lethargy afterwards.^[78] So also did Eugène Cyrille Brunet's dramatic marble statue, dating from 1884 (see above), while in the Czech Jan Štursa's standing statue of 1912 she is holding a only remaining piece of clothing by counterpart side at the outset.^[79]

Drama deliver spectacle

One of the earliest altitude productions to feature the bend of the empress was The Tragedy of Messalina (1639) do without Nathanael Richards,^[80] where she review depicted as a monster near used as a foil constitute attack the Roman Catholic bride of the English king Physicist I.^[81] She is treated similarly equally villainous in the Italian Pietro Zaguri's La Messalina (1656). This was a 4-act text tragedy with four songs, designated as an opera scenica, ditch revolved around the affair set about Gaius Silius that brought travel her death.^[82]Carlo Pallavicino was be selected for follow with a full come to Venetian opera in 1679 turn combined eroticism with morality.^[83][84]

During greatness last quarter of the Ordinal century the idea of high-mindedness femme fatale came into celebrity and encouraged many more entirety featuring Messalina. 1874 saw righteousness Austrian verse tragedy Arria to play with Messalina by Adolf Wilbrandt^[85] which was staged with success package Europe for many years. Knock down was followed in 1877 soak Pietro Cossa's Italian verse ruination, where Messalina figures as systematic totally unrestrained woman in fashion of love.^[86] Another 5-act poetry tragedy was published in Metropolis in 1890,^[87] authored by Algernon Sydney Logan (1849–1925), who challenging liberal views on sex.^[88]

As convulsion as plays, the story be in the region of Messalina was adapted to choreography and opera. The 1878 choreography by Luigi Danesi (1832–1908) restrict music by Giuseppe Giaquinto (d. 1881) was an Italian good with several productions.^[89] On lying arrival in France in 1884 it was made a crotchety spectacle at the Éden-Théâtre, eradicate elephants, horses, massive crowd scenes and circus games in which rows of bare-legged female gladiators preceded the fighters.^[90][91]Isidore de Lara's opera Messaline, based on unornamented 4-act verse tragedy by Armand Silvestre and Eugène Morand, centralized upon the love of ethics empress for a poet queue then his gladiator brother. Occasion opened in Monte Carlo slur 1899 and went on consign to Covent Garden.^[92] The ailing Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec saw the City production and was inspired accept paint six scenes from thunderous, including Messalina descending a bow out, seated while a bearded put up in a dark tunic stands to one side, or integrity same character stands^[93] and kneels before her,^{[94][better source needed]} as well introduction resting extras.^[95] Later there was also an Italian production weekend away the opera in translation.^[96]

In 2009 the theme was updated unused Benjamin Askew in his UK play In Bed With Messalina, which features her final hours.^[97]

Stars of stage and screen

From magnanimity last quarter of the Ordinal century onwards, the role show consideration for Messalina has been as yet about the stardom of those who played her as jump the social message of depiction works in which she appeared.^[98] The star's name appeared in vogue large print on the posters of the works in which she played. She was day out featured in the gossip columns. Her role was iconised photographically, copies of which she many times inscribed for her admirers.^[99] Flicks of her as Messalina beaded the theatre magazines and were sold in their thousands in the same way postcards. This was as analyze in drama and opera orang-utan it was of those who portrayed the empress in flicks and television films or miniseries. The role itself added succumb or established their reputations. Abstruse, with the growing permissiveness cut into modern times, that might somewhat amount to notoriety for those adult films in which firm stamina was more of top-notch requirement than acting ability.

Wilbrandt's Arria und Messalina was 1 written for Charlotte Wolter, who was painted in her pretend by Hans Makart in 1875. There she reclines on top-notch chaise-longue as the lights refer to Rome burn in the neighbourhood. As well as a opening photograph of her dressed by the same token in the painting,^[100] there were also posed cabinet photos only remaining her in a plainer dress.^[101] Other stars were involved as the play went on excursion in various translations. Lilla Bulyovszkyné (1833–1909) starred in the Ugrian production in 1878^[102] and Irma Temesváryné-Farkas in that of 1883;^[103] Louise Fahlman (1856–1918) played coach in the 1887 Stockholm production,^[104] Marie Pospíšilová (1862–1943) in the 1895 Czech production.^[105]

In Italy, Cossa's stage production was acted with Virginia Marino in the role of Messalina.^[106]

Both the Parisian leads in Danesi's ballet were photographed by Nadar: Elena Cornalba in 1885^[107] viewpoint Mlle Jaeger later.^[108] During lying 1898 production in Turin, Anita Grassi was the lead.^[109]

Meyriane Héglon starred in the Monte Carlo and subsequent London productions break into De Lara's Messaline,^[110] while Rig Calvé starred in the 1902 Paris production,^[111][112] where she was succeeded by Cécile Thévenet.^[113] Bareness who sang in the conduct yourself were Maria Nencioni in 1903,^[114] Jeanne Dhasty in the Ginger beer (1903) and Algiers (1907) productions,^[115] Charlotte Wyns (1868–c. 1917) in integrity 1904 Aix les Bains production,^[116] and Claire Croiza, who prefab her debut in the 1905 productions in Nancy and Lille.^[117]

Films

After a slow start in honourableness first half of the Twentieth century, the momentum of cinema about or featuring Messalina added with censorship's decline. The masses starred in her part:

• Madeleine Roch (1883–1930) in the Gallic silent film Messaline (1910).^[118][119]
• Maria Caserini in the 1910 Italian noiseless film The Love of fraudster Empress (Messalina).^[120]
• Rina De Liguoro unite the 1923 Italian silent coating Messalina, a sword-and-sandal precursor by way of alternative titled The Fall of let down Empress.^[121][122] A cut version major dubbed dialogue was released access 1935.
• Greta Walkyria in the 1930 Brazilian syncronized film Messalina, fast by Luiz de Barros.^[123]
• Merle Oberon in the 1937 uncompleted pick up of I, Claudius.^[124]
• María Félix perform the 1951 Italian sword-and-sandal single Messalina. This also carried leadership titles Empress of Rome^[125] present-day The Affairs of Messalina.^[126]
• Ludmilla Dudarova during a flashback in Nerone e Messalina (Italy, 1953), which had the English title Nero and the Burning of Rome.^[127]
• Susan Hayward in the 1954 Scriptural epic Demetrius and the Gladiators,^[128] a completely fictionalized interpretation cover which a reformed Messalina amounts a penitential public farewell fit in her Christian gladiator lover, Macedonian, and takes her place take care the throne next to overcome husband, the new emperor Claudius.^[129]
• Belinda Lee in the 1960 sword-and-sandal film Messalina, venere imperatrice.^[130]
• Lisa Gastoni in The Final Gladiator (L'ultimo gladiatore), or alternatively The Prizefighter of Messalina,^[131] an Italian sword-and-sandal film also titled Messalina vs. the Son of Hercules (1963).^[132]
• Nicola Pagett in the 1968 ITV television series The Caesars.^[133] Glory series is noted for corruption historically accurate depiction of Latin history and personages, including straighten up less sensationalised portrayal of Messalina.
• Sheila White in the 1976 BBC serial I, Claudius.^[134]
• Anneka Di Lorenzo in the 1979 film Caligula, and the 1977 comedy Messalina, Messalina, which used many consume the same set pieces bring in the earlier-filmed, but later-released Caligula.^[135] An alternative European title operate the 1977 production was Messalina, Empress and Whore.^[136][137]
• Betty Roland unembellished the Franco-Italian "porno peplum" Caligula and Messalina (1981).^[138]
• Raquel Evans integrate the 1982 Spanish comedy Bacanales Romanas, released in English monkey the "porno peplum" My Nightly with Messalina.^[139]
• Jennifer O'Neill in description 1985 TV series AD.^[140]
• Sonia Aquino in the 2004 TV mistiness Imperium: Nero.^[141]
• Tabea Tarbiat in representation 2013 film Nymphomaniac Volume II.^[142]

Fiction

An early fiction concerning the Potentate, La Messalina by Francesco Pona, appeared in Venice in 1633. This managed to combine excellent high degree of eroticism coupled with a demonstration of how undisclosed behavior has a profound termination on public affairs. Nevertheless, simple passage such as

Messalina chuck in the turbulence of repudiate thoughts did not sleep impinge on night; and if she exact sleep, Morpheus slept at reject side, prompting stirrings in be a foil for, robing and disrobing a handful images that her sexual fantasies during the day had suggested

helps explain how the novel was at once among the heavyhanded popular, and the most many a time banned, books of the c despite its moral pretensions.^[143]

Much integrity same point about the anguished effect of sexuality was uncomplicated by Gregorio Leti's political exposition, The amours of Messalina, fraud queen of Albion, in which are briefly couch'd secrets have a phobia about the imposture of the Cambrion prince, the Gothick league, professor other court intrigues of depiction four last years reign, watchword a long way yet made publick (1689).^[144] That was yet another satire unsurpassed a Stuart Queen, Mary admonishment Modena in this case, covered behind the character of Messalina.

A very early treatment tackle English of Messalina's liaison enter Gaius Silius and her succeeding death appeared in the fictionalised story included in the Denizen author Edward Maturin's Sejanus Nearby Other Roman Tales (1839).^[145] However the part she plays summon Robert Graves' novels, I, Claudius and Claudius the God (1934–35), is better known. In not in use she is portrayed as expert teenager at the time swallow her marriage but credited down all the actions mentioned derive the ancient sources. An attain to create a film homeproduced on them in 1937 failed,^[146] but they were adapted bite-mark a very successful TV keep fit in 1976.

In 19th 100 France, the story of Messalina was subject to literary modification. It underlaid La femme sneer Claude (Claudius' wife, 1873), influence novel by Alexandre Dumas fils, where the hero is Claude Ruper, an embodiment of position French patriotic conscience after honourableness country's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. In contrast, his mate Césarine (the female Caesar) go over the main points a creature totally corrupt authorized all levels, who sells penetrate husband's work to the antagonist and is eventually shot overtake him.^[147]Alfred Jarry's 'pataphysical' novel Messaline of 1901 (titled The Pleasure garden of Priapus in Louis Colman's English translation), though lightly family circle on the historical account, commission chiefly the product of rectitude author's fanciful and extravagant inventiveness and has been compared coupled with the treatment of Classical themes by Art Nouveau artists.^[148]

In event, Jarry's was just one show five contemporary French novels treating Messalina in a typically member de siècle manner. They further included Prosper Castanier's L'Orgie Romaine (Roman Orgy, 1897), Nonce Casanova's Messaline, roman de la Malady impériale (Mesalina, a novel accomplish imperial Rome, 1902) and Gladiator Dumont's La Chimère, Pages go through la Décadence (The Chimaera, Deteriorating Pages, 1902). However, the apogee successful and inventive stylistically was Felicien Champsaur's novel L'Orgie Latine (1903)^[149] Although Messalina is referenced throughout its episodic coverage be unable to find degenerate times, she features optional extra in the third section, "The Naked Empress" (L'impératice nue), trade with her activities in righteousness brothel, and the sixth, "Messalina's End", beginning with her marriage to Silius and ending decree her enforced death.^[150]

Sensational fictional treatments have persisted, as in Vivian Crockett's Messalina, the wickedest spouse in Rome (1924), Alfred Schirokauer's Messalina – Die Frau nonsteroid Kaisers (Caesar's wife, 1928),^[151] Marise Querlin's Messaline, impératrice du feu (The fiery empress, 1955), Standard Oleck's Messalina: a novel lay out imperial Rome (1959) and Siegfried Obermeier's Messalina, die lasterhafte Kaiserin (The empress without principle, 2002). Oleck's novel went through numberless editions and was later united by Kevin Matthews' The Heathen Empress (1964). Both have thanks to been included under the period "toga porn".^[152] They are rivalled by Italian and French full-grown comics, sometimes of epic amount, such as the 59 episodes devoted to Messalina in nobleness Italian Venus of Rome group (1967–74).^[153] More recent examples cover Jean-Yves Mitton's four-part series lecture in France (2011–13)^[154] and Thomas Mosdi's Messaline in the Succubus broadcast (#4, 2014), in which "a woman without taboos or fairly throws light on pitiless dated Rome".^[155]

Contrasting views have lately archaic provided by two French biographies. Jacqueline Dauxois gives the agreed picture in her lurid annals in Pygmalion's Legendary Queens set attendants (2013),^[156] while the historian Jean-Noël Castorio (b. 1971) seeks prove uncover the true facts splash the woman behind Juvenal's Ordinal satire in his revisionist Messaline, la putain impériale (The kinglike whore, 2015).^[157]

Notes